 = Mozambican War of Independence = 
 
 The Mozambican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( <unk> de <unk> de Moçambique ) , and Portugal . The war officially started on September 25 , 1964 , and ended with a ceasefire on September 8 , 1974 , resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975 . 
 Portugal 's wars against independence guerrilla fighters in its 400 @-@ year @-@ old African territories began in 1961 with Angola . In Mozambique , the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations , who perceived foreign rule to be a form of exploitation and mistreatment , which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region . Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal 's policies towards indigenous people , which resulted in discrimination , traditional lifestyle turning difficult for many Africans , and limited access to Portuguese @-@ style education and skilled employment . 
 As successful self @-@ determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II , many Mozambicans became progressively nationalistic in outlook , and increasingly frustrated by the nation 's continued subservience to foreign rule . For the other side , many <unk> indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the Portugal @-@ ruled social organization of Portuguese Mozambique , in particular those from the urban centres , reacted to the <unk> claims with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion . The ethnic Portuguese of the territory , which included most of the ruling authorities , responded with increased military presence and fast @-@ paced development projects . 
 A mass exile of Mozambique 's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided <unk> from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland . The formation of the Mozambican guerrilla organisation FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union , China , Cuba , Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Tanzania , Zambia , Egypt , Algeria and <unk> regime in Libya through arms and advisers , led to the outbreak of violence that was to last over a decade . 
 From a military standpoint , the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against the <unk> guerrilla forces . Nonetheless , Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25 , 1975 , after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrow the military dictatorship sponsored by US , thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region . According to historians of the Revolution , the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some local Mozambican populace . The role of the growing communist influence over the group of Portuguese military insurgents who led the Lisbon 's military coup , and , on the other hand , the pressure of the international community over the direction of the Portuguese Colonial War in general , were main causes for the final outcome . 
 
 = = Background = = 
 
 
 = = = Portuguese colonial rule = = = 
 
 San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the <unk> peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by <unk> @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the <unk> River . In <unk> , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline . Portugal 's influence in East Africa grew throughout the 16th century ; she established several colonies known collectively as Portuguese East Africa . <unk> and gold became profitable for the Europeans ; influence was largely exercised through individual settlers and there was no centralised administration and , in the meantime , Portugal had turned her attention to India and Brazil . 
 By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height . Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts . This brought them into direct conflict with the British . Since David <unk> had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes , British interest in Mozambique had risen , <unk> the Portuguese government . During the 19th century , much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control , and in order to facilitate this , Britain required several concessions from the Portuguese colony . 
 As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 . Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the <unk> Company and the Niassa Company which were financed and provided with cheap labour by the British Empire to work mines and construct railways . These companies penetrated inland from the coastline , setting up plantations and taxing the local populace who had until then resisted encroachment by the colonists . 
 The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço <unk> as the capital . In 1926 , political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic ( later to become the <unk> Novo ) , and a revival of interest in the African colonies . <unk> for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II , in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation . 
 
 = = = Rise of FRELIMO = = = 
 
 Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy . It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( <unk> <unk> de Moçambique ) . Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province . The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II , coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population , encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiments within Mozambique . 
 Mozambique was marked by large <unk> between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population . <unk> whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed . In the rural areas , Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted . Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life , skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations , leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life . Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal . A small educated African class did emerge , but faced substantial discrimination . 
 Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile . From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the <unk> Novo period ( 1933 @-@ 1974 ) . The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export , providing little return with which the farmers could support themselves . Many other workers — over 250 @,@ 000 by 1960 — were pressured to work on coal and gold mines , in neighbouring territories , mainly in South Africa , where they comprised over 30 % of black underground miners . By 1950 , only 4 @,@ 353 Mozambicans out of 5 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government . The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ( <unk> ) , numbering only 31 @,@ <unk> in a population of 8 – 10 million in 1960 according to that year 's census . 
 The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( <unk> de <unk> de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ <unk> as of 1977 but <unk> to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 . It was created during a conference , by political figures who had been forced into exile , by the merging of various existing nationalist groups , including the Mozambican African National Union , National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier . It was only in exile that such political movements could develop , due to the strength of Portugal 's grip on <unk> activity within Mozambique itself . 
 A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from <unk> two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1964 a campaign of guerrilla warfare in an attempt to achieve independence for Mozambique . 
 The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation . Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc . 
 
 = = = Support from the Soviet Union = = = 
 
 During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of <unk> of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies . Nikita <unk> , in particular , viewed the ' <unk> third of mankind ' as a means to weaken the West . For the Soviets , Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets , and create pro @-@ communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations . 
 Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion . There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed . The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , received training and equipment from the Soviet Union . 
 Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and <unk> , describing them as " the only ones who will really help us . ... They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . " <unk> received tuition in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid , specifically shipments of 122 mm artillery rockets in 1972 , with 1600 advisors from Russia , Cuba and East Germany . FRELIMO adopted <unk> @-@ <unk> at an early stage . 
 The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against <unk> in the years after 1975 . By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country . Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti @-@ <unk> ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies . Cuba provided support to liberation movements and leftist governments in numerous African countries , including Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea @-@ <unk> and Congo @-@ <unk> . 
 
 = = Conflict = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = = 
 
 At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force . Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon . Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare , and a large military force was sent by the Portuguese government to quell the unrest , with troop numbers rising from 8 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 between 1964 and 1967 . The number of local soldiers recruited for the Portuguese cause rose to 23 @,@ 000 in the same period . 860 Special Forces operatives were also being trained in Commando <unk> <unk> by 1969 . 
 The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by <unk> Samuel <unk> , whose forces received training from Algeria . The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China . Common weapons included the <unk> – <unk> bolt @-@ action rifle , <unk> and AK @-@ 47 automatic rifles and the Soviet <unk> @-@ 41 . Machine guns such as the <unk> light machine gun were widely used , along with the <unk> and the SG @-@ 43 <unk> . FRELIMO were supported by mortars , recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ <unk> and RPG @-@ <unk> , Anti @-@ aircraft weapons such as the <unk> @-@ 4 and from 1974 the <unk> 2 . 
 In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few <unk> @-@ 7 <unk> shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane . Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's <unk> @-@ 4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance . 
 The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories . Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict . Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up @-@ to @-@ date equipment for the <unk> while shipping obsolete equipment to the colonies , the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old <unk> rifle . As the fighting progressed , the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised , and the <unk> & Koch <unk> and <unk> <unk> rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon , along with the <unk> @-@ 10 for paratroopers . The <unk> and , then in 1968 , the <unk> were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns , with 60 , 81 and 120 mm mortars , howitzers and the AML @-@ 60 , <unk> <unk> , Fox and <unk> armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support . 
 Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the <unk> III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success . Other aircraft were employed : for air support the <unk> and the <unk> <unk> were used ; for reconnaissance , the <unk> Do 27 . In the transport role , the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord <unk> and the C @-@ 47 . The Portuguese Navy also made extensive use of patrol boats , landing crafts , and <unk> <unk> . 
 
 = = = = <unk> of FRELIMO attacks = = = = 
 
 In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania . FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the administrative post at Chai Chai in the province of Cabo <unk> . FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics : <unk> patrols , <unk> communication and railroad lines , and making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible <unk> areas . The insurgents were typically armed with rifles and machine pistols , and the attackers took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit . 
 During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , <unk> Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult . In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the <unk> ) amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away . Furthermore , the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages , and were thus not hampered by long supply lines . 
 With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique . During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , <unk> and raids on Portuguese installations . The FRELIMO soldiers often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen soldiers . The scattered nature of FRELIMO 's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces . 
 The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of <unk> . With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards <unk> and <unk> , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi , which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on July 6 , 1964 . Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations , attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts , with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the <unk> River and Lake Malawi . 
 It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size . The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania . Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam , the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to <unk> the Portuguese forces , thus straining the armed forces ' infrastructure and <unk> soldiers . 
 FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks . On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , <unk> Samuel <unk> was shot dead by Lourenço <unk> , a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese . 
 One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat . During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups . With the increasing cost of supply , more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese , and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population , it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad , specifically the Soviet Union and China ; from these benefactors , he obtained large @-@ calibre machine guns , anti @-@ aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets . 
 In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day . This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations . 
 
 = = = Portuguese development program = = = 
 
 Due to both the technological gap between <unk> and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century . In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control , the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads , railways , bridges , dams , irrigation systems , schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace . 
 As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the <unk> <unk> Dam began in 1969 . This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies . The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's " <unk> mission " and intended for the dam to <unk> Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government . To this end , Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project . 
 <unk> the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force . No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site . FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project , and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique . In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam , it was finally completed in December 1974 . The dam 's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace , who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project . The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods , which formerly re @-@ fertilised the plantations . 
 
 = = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = = 
 
 On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his <unk> . Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam . Inside the parcel was a book containing an explosive device , which detonated upon opening . Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters , and that the faction responsible was never identified . 
 The original investigations levelled accusations at <unk> <unk> ( who was later executed ) and <unk> <unk> , FRELIMO leader in Cabo <unk> . The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the <unk> police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Portugal 's secret police ) to assassinate Mondlane . <unk> himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year . 
 Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly <unk> Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind <unk> @-@ esque army , known as <unk> Press , that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination . Initially , due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible , Mondlane 's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left . 
 Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev. <unk> Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 . In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and <unk> dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO and eventually arrested and executed , post @-@ Independence , in 1975 . 
 
 = = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = = 
 
 In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 . Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters . Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations , such as the Special Groups of <unk> in 1973 , though their role less significant under the new commander . His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland . 
 By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa <unk> , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units . Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE . <unk> of local tribesmen , the units specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and anti @-@ terrorist operations . 
 Costa <unk> argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time . These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict , following the dismissal of Kaúlza de Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974 – the Carnation Revolution . The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal , when the country splintered into civil war . 
 There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole : 
 Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola 
 <unk> Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais <unk> @-@ <unk> ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training 
 Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de <unk> de <unk> ) : special units trained in tracking 
 Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel <unk> specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations . They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash <unk> for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture . 
 During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism . The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties . During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines , including the <unk> ( Black Widow ) , <unk> @-@ 46 , and <unk> . Even amphibious mines were used , such as the <unk> . Mine <unk> , an acute fear of landmines , was rampant in the Portuguese forces . This fear , coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces , damaged morale and significantly hampered progress . 
 
 = = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = = 
 
 On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army . The Gordian <unk> Operation ( Portuguese : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the <unk> border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months . The operation involved some 35 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops , particularly elite units like paratroopers , commandos , marines and naval <unk> . 
 The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols . They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( <unk> ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( <unk> <unk> <unk> or FAP ) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas . These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery . The Portuguese also used cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult to motor transport , and units of captured or deserted guerrillas to penetrate their former bases . 
 Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties . Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army . Thus , the army lacked close air support from the FAP . <unk> Portuguese casualties began to <unk> FRELIMO casualties , leading to further political intervention from Lisbon . 
 The Portuguese eventually reported <unk> as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese . Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months . Although " Gordian <unk> " was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict , weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat , the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government . 
 By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop <unk> . They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the <unk> Programme , which was a forced relocation program . But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO – not numbering more than 8 @,@ 000 fighters – launched a large offensive in Tete Province . The response from the Portuguese military was fierce , leading to reprisal attacks in an attempt to <unk> the local population 's continuing faith in FRELIMO . 
 On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete . <unk> to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper <unk> based in testimonies from soldiers ) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas . The action , " Operation <unk> " , was planned at the instigation of PIDE / <unk> agents and guided by agent <unk> <unk> , who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out . The soldiers were told by this agent that " the orders were to kill them all " , never mind that only civilians , women and children included , were found . All of the victims were civilians . The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest , Father Adrian Hastings , and two other Spanish missionary priests . Later counter @-@ claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam <unk> <unk> that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants , not Portuguese forces . In addition , others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad . Portuguese journalist <unk> <unk> reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre . <unk> 's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper <unk> and later in a book containing several of the journalist 's articles . 
 By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . " <unk> : <unk> para <unk> " ( <unk> villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and <unk> the indigenous population , in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base . Conversely , Mondlane 's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander , Machel . " Panic , <unk> , abandonment , and a sense of <unk> – all were reactions among whites in Mozambique " stated conflict historian T. H. <unk> in 1983 . 
 This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a <unk> sign of the conflict 's unpopularity . Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO <unk> through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974 . A Portuguese journalist argued : 
 
 = = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = = 
 
 Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( <unk> ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars . They had carried out multiple <unk> and bombings against military targets , such as the attack on the <unk> air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8 , 1971 , and the attack on the NATO headquarters at <unk> in October of the same year . The attack on the Portuguese ship Niassa illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest . Niassa ( named after a Mozambican province ) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea . By the time of the Carnation Revolution , 100 @,@ 000 draft <unk> had been recorded . 
 Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget . This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself . This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation . Portugal 's GDP growth during the colonial war period ( 1961 – 1974 ) , was strong and reached a 6 % rate ( a <unk> GDP growth which were not achieved in any other comparable period after 1974 ) . 
 The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tempo e <unk> , and <unk> , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems . 
 The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo <unk> . Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de <unk> , called for a ceasefire . With the change of government in Lisbon , many soldiers refused to continue fighting , often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol . Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the <unk> <unk> signed on September 7 , 1974 , which provided for a complete hand @-@ over of power to FRELIMO , uncontested by elections . Formal independence was set for June 25 , 1975 , the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO . 
 
 = = Aftermath = = 
 
 Many Portuguese <unk> were not typical settlers in Mozambique . While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of <unk> - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations . Loss of their privileged status and fears of FRELIMO reprisal resulted in an exodus of up to 200 @,@ 000 white civilians at independence ( in Europe they were popularly known as <unk> ) . Cities , towns and villages saw their Portuguese names changed after independence - Lourenço <unk> to Maputo , Vila <unk> to <unk> , Vila Cabral to <unk> , or Vila <unk> to <unk> . 
 With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse <unk> . <unk> commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influence in the region . 
 Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president . The Reverend <unk> Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial . Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against <unk> insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military support . Industrial and social recession , Marxist @-@ style <unk> , corruption , poverty , inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour . Peace returned only in 1992 , when the nation achieved relative stability for the first time in several decades . 
 
 = = = <unk> sources = = = 
 
 
 = = = Online sources = = = 
 
 
 