 = Sclerodermatineae = 
 
 Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales . <unk> in 2002 by <unk> Manfred Binder and Andreas <unk> , it contains nine genera and about 80 species . The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies , including <unk> , gasteroid forms , earthstars ( genus Astraeus ) , and <unk> . Most species are ectomycorrhizal , although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty . The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) in Asia and North America , and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . 
 
 = = Taxonomy = = 
 
 The Sclerodermatineae was first legitimately used by Manfred Binder and Andreas <unk> in 2002 based on molecular analyses of nuclear ribosomal large <unk> ( <unk> ) rRNA sequences from 60 species of Boletales . This research was an extension of Binder 's 1999 graduate work , in which he argued for the need to recognize the molecular differences of the <unk> fungi . Sclerodermatineae is one of six lineages of the Boletales recognized as a suborder ; the others are the <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . Of the nine genera assigned to the Sclerodermatineae , three are <unk> ( Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus ) , and six are gasteroid ( Astraeus , Calostoma , Diplocystis , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma ) . Since the suborder 's original description , there have been several phylogenetic studies investigating the Sclerodermatineae . Some studies have revealed the existence of numerous cryptic species and have contributed to taxonomic expansion of the group . The " core " Sclerodermatineae include the genera Astraeus , Calostoma , Scleroderma , Pisolithus , Diplocystis , Tremellogaster ( all gasteroid ) , and the <unk> genus Gyroporus ; Phlebopus and Boletinellus resolved as sister to this core group . 
 As of 2012 , there are an estimated 78 species in the Sclerodermatineae . The type of the suborder is the family <unk> ; other families in the suborder are the <unk> , Diplocystaceae , and the <unk> . 
 <unk> 
 Boletinellus ( 2 species ) 
 Phlebopus ( 12 species ) 
 Diplocystaceae 
 Astraeus ( 5 species ) 
 Diplocystis ( 1 species ) 
 <unk> ( 1 species ) 
 Tremellogaster ( 1 species ) 
 <unk> 
 Gyroporus ( 10 species ) 
 <unk> 
 Calostoma ( 15 species ) 
 <unk> ( 1 species ) 
 <unk> ( 1 species ) 
 <unk> ( 1 species ) 
 Pisolithus ( 5 species ) 
 Scleroderma ( about 30 species ) 
 Based on ancestral reconstruction studies , the earliest ( basal ) members of the Sclerodermatineae originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) . The major genera diversified near the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . Asia and North America are the most probable ancestral areas for all Sclerodermatineae , and <unk> and angiosperms ( primarily <unk> ) are the most probable ancestral hosts . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 Members of the Sclerodermatineae have fruit body shapes ranging from <unk> ( with a cap , stipe , and tubes on the underside of the cap ) to gasteroid . <unk> fruit bodies sometimes have hollow <unk> with a surface that is smooth to somewhat <unk> ( covered with <unk> particles ) , and lack the <unk> ( a net @-@ like pattern of <unk> lines ) characteristic of some members of the <unk> . The pores are <unk> ( wrinkled with low , uneven ridges ) , <unk> , and either fine or coarse . The flesh is usually whitish to yellowish , and some species exhibit a blue staining reaction upon injury . In mass , spores are yellow ; microscopically , the spores are ellipsoid in shape and have a smooth surface . 
 <unk> fruit body types are either roughly spherical or <unk> , occasionally with <unk> , and usually have a peridium that is either simple or multi @-@ layered . <unk> gasteroid fruit bodies generally open irregularly at maturity to expose a powdery gleba with a color ranging from white to yellow or black @-@ brown to black . <unk> are generally absent from the gleba . <unk> are spherical or nearly so , and have a surface texture that ranges from smooth to <unk> @-@ like and spiny , or sometimes with <unk> . <unk> have clamp connections . 
 
 = = <unk> diversity = = 
 
 A distinguishing feature of the Sclerodermatineae is the diversity of morphologies within the group . The <unk> genera Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus are typical <unk> with a cap and stipe . However , each of the gasteroid Sclerodermatineae has a distinct morphology . Species of Astraeus have an " earthstar " morphology where the outer peridium <unk> back in sections . The gleba of Pisolithus is partitioned into hundreds of <unk> chambers . Scleroderma is a simple puffball with a thin outer skin and a powdery gleba at maturity . Diplocystis and Tremellogaster are each distinct in their morphologies : the former comprises compound fruit bodies each with 3 – 60 spore sacs crowded together , while the latter forms a roughly spherical <unk> with a thick multi @-@ layered peridium . Calostoma ( Greek for " pretty mouth " ) is <unk> distinct from other gasteroid members , having a fruit body that forms a <unk> , spore @-@ bearing head composed of a three @-@ layered peridium . About two @-@ thirds of Sclerodermatineae species have a gasteroid morphology , although this may be an <unk> due to the existence of cryptic species that have yet to be formally described . For example , studies of the gasteroid genera Astraeus and Pisolithus indicate the existence of numerous cryptic taxa . 
 
 = = Ecology = = 
 
 The mycorrhizal associations of several Sclerodermatineae genera have been established . Studies have demonstrated that Astraeus , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma form ectomycorrhizal associations with both angiosperms and <unk> . Previously thought to be <unk> , the <unk> were determined to be ectomycorrhizal with <unk> and <unk> using isotopic and molecular analyses . Species from the genera Pisolithus and Scleroderma have been used in forestry as mycorrhizal <unk> to help promote the growth and <unk> of young seedlings . 
 As a group , the Sclerodermatineae have a broad distribution , and some genera ( Pisolithus and Scleroderma ) have been found on all continents except Antarctica . 
 
 = = = Cited literature = = = 
 
 Kirk <unk> , Cannon <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> ( 2008 ) . Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th ed . ) . <unk> , UK : <unk> International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ <unk> @-@ 826 @-@ 8 . 
 