 = Amanita muscaria = 
 
 Amanita muscaria , commonly known as the fly agaric or fly <unk> , is a mushroom and psychoactive <unk> fungus , one of many in the genus Amanita . Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere , generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations , and is now a true cosmopolitan species . It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees . 
 This iconic toadstool is a large white @-@ <unk> , white @-@ spotted , usually red mushroom , and is one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture . Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised , including the brown regalis ( often considered a separate species ) , the yellow @-@ orange flavivolvata , <unk> , <unk> , and the pinkish <unk> . Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species . 
 Although classified as poisonous , reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare . After <unk> — which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom 's psychoactive substances — it is eaten in parts of Europe , Asia , and North America . Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties , with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol . The mushroom was used as an <unk> and <unk> by the peoples of Siberia , and has a religious significance in these cultures . There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an <unk> in other places such as the Middle East , Eurasia , North America , and Scandinavia . 
 
 = = Taxonomy and naming = = 
 
 The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to be derived from its use as an <unk> when <unk> in milk . This practice has been recorded from <unk> and Slavic @-@ speaking parts of Europe , as well as the <unk> region and pockets elsewhere in France , and Romania . <unk> Magnus was the first to record it in his work De <unk> some time before <unk> , commenting <unk> fungus <unk> , <unk> <unk> in <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , " it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies . " 
 The 16th @-@ century Flemish botanist <unk> <unk> traced the practice of <unk> it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany , while Carl Linnaeus , the " father of taxonomy " , reported it from <unk> in southern Sweden , where he had lived as a child . He described it in volume two of his Species <unk> in 1753 , giving it the name Agaricus <unk> , the specific epithet deriving from Latin <unk> meaning " fly " . It gained its current name in 1783 , when placed in the genus Amanita by Jean @-@ Baptiste <unk> , a name sanctioned in 1821 by the " father of <unk> " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the <unk> had been set by general agreement as January 1 , 1821 , the date of Fries 's work , and so the full name was then Amanita muscaria ( L. : <unk> . ) Hook . The 1987 edition of the International Code of <unk> Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi , and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's work . Hence , Linnaeus and <unk> are now taken as the <unk> of Amanita muscaria ( L. ) <unk> .. 
 The English mycologist John <unk> reported that Amanita muscaria was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden , and bug agaric was an old alternate name for the species . French mycologist Pierre <unk> reported having tried without success to replicate its fly @-@ killing properties in his work <unk> des <unk> <unk> et <unk> de la France ( 1784 ) , and proposed a new binomial name Agaricus pseudo @-@ <unk> because of this . One compound isolated from the fungus is 1 @,@ 3 @-@ <unk> ( 1 @,@ 3 @-@ Di ( <unk> @-@ 9 @-@ <unk> ) <unk> ) , which attracts insects . It has been <unk> that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its <unk> properties . An alternative derivation proposes that the term <unk> refers not to insects as such but rather the <unk> resulting from consumption of the fungus . This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person 's head and cause mental illness . Several regional names appear to be linked with this <unk> , meaning the " mad " or " fool 's " version of the highly regarded edible mushroom Amanita caesarea . Hence there is <unk> <unk> " mad <unk> " in Catalan , <unk> <unk> from Toulouse , <unk> <unk> from the <unk> department in Southern France , <unk> <unk> from <unk> in Italy . A local dialect name in <unk> in Switzerland is <unk> de <unk> , which translates as " Devil 's hat " . 
 
 = = = Classification = = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria is the type species of the genus . By extension , it is also the type species of Amanita subgenus Amanita , as well as section Amanita within this subgenus . Amanita subgenus Amanita includes all Amanita with <unk> spores . Amanita section Amanita includes the species which have very <unk> universal veil remnants , including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts . Most species in this group also have a bulbous base . Amanita section Amanita consists of A. muscaria and its close relatives , including A. <unk> ( the panther cap ) , A. <unk> , A. <unk> , and A. <unk> . Modern fungal <unk> have classified Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore <unk> . Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural . 
 Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology , and many authorities recognise several subspecies or varieties within the species . In The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies , though without description : A. muscaria ssp. muscaria , A. muscaria ssp. <unk> , and A. muscaria ssp. flavivolvata . 
 Contemporary authorities recognise up to seven varieties : 
 A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of A. muscaria by mycologist <unk> <unk> and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing , roughly , Eurasian , Eurasian " subalpine " , and North American populations . Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska ; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of <unk> for this species . The study also looked at four named varieties of the species : var. <unk> , var. flavivolvata , var. <unk> ( including var. <unk> ) , and var. regalis from both areas . All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades , evidence that these morphological forms are <unk> rather than distinct subspecies or varieties . Further molecular study by <unk> and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups , plus a fourth associated with oak – <unk> – pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California , are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species ; thus A. muscaria as it stands currently is evidently a species complex . The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species : A. <unk> is a buff @-@ capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest , and the brown @-@ capped A. <unk> and A. <unk> from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively . Both of these last two are found with Eucalyptus and <unk> trees , and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 A large , conspicuous mushroom , Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows , and is often found in groups with <unk> in all stages of development . Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs . After emerging from the ground , the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid @-@ shaped warts . These are remnants of the universal veil , a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young . <unk> the mushroom at this stage will reveal a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil ; this is helpful in identification . As the fungus grows , the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent ; they do not change in size , but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area . The cap changes from <unk> to <unk> , and finally to plate @-@ like and flat in mature specimens . Fully grown , the bright red cap is usually around 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) in diameter , although larger specimens have been found . The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms . 
 The free gills are white , as is the spore print . The oval spores measure 9 – 13 by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 μm ; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine . The stipe is white , 5 – 20 cm high ( 2 – 8 in ) by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and has the slightly brittle , fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms . At the base is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or <unk> . Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil ( which covers the gills during development ) in the form of a white ring . It can be quite wide and flaccid with age . There is generally no associated smell other than a mild <unk> . 
 Although very distinctive in appearance , the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas , such as <unk> <unk> <unk> and the edible Amanita <unk> — a Mexican species similar to A. caesarea of Europe . Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that <unk> ( Spanish for ' yellow ' ) is a common name for the A. caesarea @-@ like species in Mexico . Amanita caesarea can be distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap which lacks the numerous white <unk> spots of the fly agaric . Furthermore , the stem , gills and ring of A. caesarea are bright yellow , not white . The volva is a distinct white bag , not broken into scales . In Australia , the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native <unk> <unk> ( Amanita <unk> ) , which grows in association with eucalypts . The latter species generally lacks the white warts of A. muscaria and bears no ring . 
 
 = = Distribution and habitat = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria is a cosmopolitan mushroom , native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu <unk> , the Mediterranean and also Central America . A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian – <unk> region in the Tertiary period , before radiating outwards across Asia , Europe and North America . The season for fruiting varies in different climates : fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America , but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast . This species is often found in similar locations to Boletus <unk> , and may appear in fairy rings . <unk> with pine seedlings , it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere , including Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and South America , where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of <unk> and Rio Grande do <unk> . 
 <unk> , Amanita muscaria forms symbiotic relationships with many trees , including pine , spruce , fir , birch , and cedar . Commonly seen under introduced trees , A. muscaria is the fungal equivalent of a weed in New Zealand , Tasmania and Victoria , forming new associations with southern beech ( <unk> ) . The species is also invading a <unk> in Australia , where it may be <unk> the native species . It appears to be spreading northwards , with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast . It was recorded under silver birch ( <unk> <unk> ) in <unk> , Western Australia in 2010 . Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia , it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience . Occasionally it has been ingested in error , because immature button forms resemble <unk> . The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible A. caesarea . 
 Amanita muscaria contains several biologically active agents , at least one of which , muscimol , is known to be psychoactive . Ibotenic acid , a <unk> , serves as a <unk> to muscimol , with approximately 10 – 20 % converting to muscimol after ingestion . An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid ; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of Amanita muscaria . The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season , which can further confuse the issue . Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn <unk> . 
 A fatal dose has been calculated as 15 caps . <unk> from this fungus A. muscaria have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports , but with modern medical treatment , fatal poisoning from <unk> this mushroom is extremely rare . Many older books list Amanita muscaria as " deadly " , but this is an error that implies the mushroom is more toxic than it is . The North American Mycological Association has stated there were no reliably documented fatalities from eating this mushroom during the 20th century . The vast majority ( 90 % or more ) of mushroom poisoning deaths are from eating the greenish to yellowish " death cap " , ( A. <unk> ) or perhaps even one of the several white Amanita species which are known as destroying angels . 
 The active constituents of this species are water @-@ soluble , and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly <unk> A. muscaria . <unk> may increase <unk> , as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol . According to some sources , once detoxified , the mushroom becomes edible . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 <unk> , discovered in 1869 , was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in A. muscaria . <unk> binds with <unk> acetylcholine receptors leading to the <unk> of neurons bearing these receptors . The levels of muscarine in Amanita muscaria are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as Inocybe <unk> , the small white <unk> species C. <unk> and C. <unk> . The level of muscarine in A. muscaria is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning . 
 The major toxins involved in A. muscaria poisoning are muscimol ( 3 @-@ <unk> @-@ 5 @-@ <unk> @-@ 1 @-@ <unk> , an <unk> cyclic <unk> acid ) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid . Muscimol is the product of the <unk> ( usually by drying ) of ibotenic acid . Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid @-@ 20th century . Researchers in England , Japan , and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol , not muscarine . These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom . Most are detected in the cap of the fruit , a moderate amount in the base , with the smallest amount in the stalk . Quite rapidly , between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion , a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted <unk> in the urine of the consumer . Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten , but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating A. muscaria , which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol . 
 Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major <unk> of the central nervous system : <unk> acid and <unk> respectively . Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these <unk> , muscimol being a potent <unk> agonist , while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA <unk> receptors and certain <unk> <unk> receptors which are involved in the control of <unk> activity . It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication . Muscimol is the agent responsible for the majority of the <unk> . 
 <unk> is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric . It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra @-@ violet radiation . <unk> is of minor <unk> activity compared with the other agents . Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective <unk> of <unk> ; some species concentrate <unk> to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants . <unk> is present in fruit @-@ bodies as an <unk> compound called <unk> . The biological importance of the <unk> process is unknown . 
 
 = = = Symptoms = = = 
 
 Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects . Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight , effects can range from nausea and twitching to <unk> , <unk> crisis @-@ like effects ( low blood pressure , sweating and <unk> ) , auditory and visual distortions , mood changes , euphoria , relaxation , <unk> , and loss of equilibrium . 
 In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes <unk> , somewhat similar in effect to <unk> poisoning ( such as that caused by <unk> <unk> ) , characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion , hallucinations , and <unk> followed by periods of central nervous system depression . <unk> and coma may also occur in severe <unk> . Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours , but certain effects can last for several days . In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours . The effect is highly variable between individuals , with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions . Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited <unk> up to ten hours afterwards . <unk> <unk> and <unk> can result following recovery . 
 
 = = = Treatment = = = 
 
 Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning . If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours , activated charcoal is given . <unk> <unk> can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion . <unk> vomiting with syrup of <unk> is no longer recommended in any poisoning situations . 
 There is no antidote , and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication . Though sometimes referred to as a <unk> and while muscarine was first isolated from A. muscaria and as such is its namesake , muscimol does not have action , either as an agonist or antagonist , at the <unk> acetylcholine receptor site , and therefore <unk> or <unk> as an antidote is not recommended . If a patient is delirious or agitated , this can usually be treated by <unk> and , if necessary , physical restraints . A <unk> such as <unk> or <unk> can be used to control combativeness , agitation , muscular <unk> , and <unk> . Only small doses should be used , as they may <unk> the respiratory <unk> effects of muscimol . <unk> vomiting is rare , but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte <unk> ; intravenous <unk> or electrolyte replacement may be required . Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma , and may need <unk> and artificial ventilation . <unk> can remove the toxins , although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary . With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment . 
 
 = = = <unk> use = = = 
 
 The wide range of psychedelic effects can be variously described as <unk> , <unk> @-@ hypnotic , <unk> , and <unk> ; paradoxical effects may occur . <unk> phenomena such as <unk> and <unk> may occur , which may have been the inspiration for the effect of mushroom @-@ consumption in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , although " no evidence has ever been found that linked Carroll to recreational drug use " . Additionally , A. muscaria cannot be commercially cultivated , due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees . However , following the <unk> of <unk> mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006 , the sale of the still legal A. muscaria began increasing . 
 Professor <unk> <unk> , a renowned Lithuanian historian , reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania . In remote areas of Lithuania Amanita muscaria has been consumed at wedding <unk> , in which mushrooms were mixed with <unk> . The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export A. muscaria to the <unk> in the Far North for use in <unk> rituals . The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe . 
 
 = = = Siberia = = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria was widely used as an <unk> by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia . Its use was known among almost all of the <unk> @-@ speaking peoples of western Siberia and the <unk> @-@ speaking peoples of the Russian Far East . There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the <unk> and <unk> peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole <unk> use of A. muscaria was not practised by these peoples . In western Siberia , the use of A. muscaria was restricted to shamans , who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state . ( Normally , Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing . ) In eastern Siberia , A. muscaria was used by both shamans and <unk> alike , and was used <unk> as well as religiously . In eastern Siberia , the <unk> would take the mushrooms , and others would drink his urine . This urine , still containing psychoactive elements , may be more potent than the A. muscaria mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching , suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom . 
 The <unk> of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ( wapaq ) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home . In the story , the deity <unk> ( " <unk> " ) <unk> onto earth , and his <unk> became the wapaq , and his <unk> becomes the warts . After experiencing the power of the wapaq , Raven was so <unk> that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children , the people , could learn from it . Among the <unk> , one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy , who could afford to buy the mushrooms . 
 
 = = = Other reports of use = = = 
 
 The Finnish historian T. I. <unk> mentions that A. muscaria was once used among the Sami people : <unk> in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots . In 1979 , Said <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of <unk> and recreational use of this mushroom among a <unk> @-@ speaking group in Afghanistan . There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of A. muscaria among two <unk> Native American tribes . <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> reported its use among her people , where it was known as the <unk> . This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson , although evidence from other sources was lacking . There is also one account of a Euro @-@ American who claims to have been initiated into traditional <unk> use of Amanita muscaria . 
 
 = = = Vikings = = = 
 
 The notion that Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their <unk> <unk> was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel <unk> in 1784 . <unk> based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans . The notion has become widespread since the 19th century , but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of <unk> . Muscimol is generally a mild <unk> , but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people . It is possible that it could make a person angry , or cause them to be " very <unk> or sad , jump about , dance , sing or give way to great <unk> " . 
 
 = = Fly trap = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol . Recently , an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent ( milk or water ) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol . 
 
 = = In Religion = = 
 
 
 = = = Soma = = = 
 
 In 1968 , R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in the <unk> <unk> of India , a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time . He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots , stems or seeds , which suggested a mushroom , and used the adjective <unk> " dazzling " or " <unk> " which the author interprets as meaning red . One line described men <unk> Soma ; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia . Soma is mentioned as coming " from the mountains " , which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the <unk> invaders from the north . Indian scholars <unk> Kumar <unk> and <unk> <unk> pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed , using as a source the <unk> . In 1971 , Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson 's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma . In his 1976 survey , <unk> and Culture , anthropologist Peter T. <unk> evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma , concluding cautiously in its favour . 
 
 = = = Christianity = = = 
 
 <unk> , <unk> , and Dead Sea <unk> scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the <unk> consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross , but his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of <unk> . The book was <unk> discredited by academics and theologians , including Sir Godfrey Driver , <unk> Professor of Semitic <unk> at Oxford University , and Henry <unk> , the Dean of Christ Church , Oxford . Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro 's theory in the 1970 book A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth ; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East , even though cedars and pines are found there , and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and <unk> names coined by Allegro . He concludes that if the theory was true , the use of the mushroom must have been " the best kept secret in the world " as it was so well concealed for two thousand years . 
 
 = = Culinary use = = 
 
 The toxins in A. muscaria are water @-@ soluble . When sliced thinly , or finely <unk> and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked , it seems to be detoxified . Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread , the consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe ( notably by Russian settlers in Siberia ) since at least the 19th century , and likely earlier . The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von <unk> wrote the earliest published account on how to <unk> this mushroom in 1823 . In the late 19th century , the French physician Félix <unk> <unk> was a <unk> and advocate of A. muscaria consumption , comparing it to <unk> , an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption . 
 Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America . A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African @-@ American mushroom seller in Washington , D.C. , in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon <unk> . In this case , the mushroom , after <unk> , and <unk> in vinegar , is made into a mushroom sauce for <unk> . It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan . The most well @-@ known current use as an edible mushroom is in <unk> Prefecture , Japan . There , it is primarily salted and <unk> . 
 A 2008 paper by food historian William <unk> and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes <unk> methods . They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom , though accompanied by a description on how to <unk> it . The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias , as several other popular edible species , notably morels , are toxic unless properly cooked . 
 
 = = Legal Status = = 
 
 
 = = = Australia = = = 
 
 Muscimol found within Amanita muscaria is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the <unk> Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and / or State or Territory Health Authorities . 
 
 = = = The Netherlands = = = 
 
 Amanita muscaria and Amanita <unk> are illegal to buy , sell , or possess since December 2008 . Possession of amounts larger than <unk> dried or <unk> fresh lead to a criminal charge . 
 
 = = = United Kingdom = = = 
 
 It is illegal to produce , supply , or import this drug under the <unk> <unk> Act , which came into effect on May 26th , 2016 . 
 
 = = Cultural depictions = = 
 
 The red @-@ and @-@ white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture . Garden ornaments and children 's picture books depicting <unk> and fairies , such as the <unk> , often show fly agarics used as seats , or homes . Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance , albeit in a subtle manner . In the Victorian era they became more visible , becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings . Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros. ( specifically two of the power @-@ up items and the platforms in several stages ) , and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia . 
 
 = = = Literature = = = 
 
 An account of the journeys of Philip von <unk> to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the <unk> there was published in English in 1736 . The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo @-@ Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read <unk> novel , Citizen of the World . The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time . Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus , including naturalist <unk> <unk> Cooke in his books The Seven Sisters of Sleep and A Plain and Easy <unk> of British Fungi . This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . A hallucinogenic " scarlet toadstool " from <unk> is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley 's 1866 novel <unk> the Wake based on the medieval figure of the same name . Thomas Pynchon 's 1973 novel Gravity 's Rainbow describes the fungus as a " relative of the poisonous Destroying Angel " and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a <unk> <unk> mixture from harvested Amanita muscaria . Fly agaric <unk> is also explored in the 2003 novel <unk> by Alan Garner . 
 
 