 = Common starling = 
 
 The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized <unk> bird in the starling family , Sturnidae . It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic <unk> , which is speckled with white at some times of year . The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have <unk> plumage than the adults . It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an <unk> but varied song . Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the <unk> and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare . 
 The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it has been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji . This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa . The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid . These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks . There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year . This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit . It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites . 
 Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops . Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts . Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia . The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks . Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . 
 
 = = Taxonomy and <unk> = = 
 
 The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema <unk> in 1758 under its current binomial name . Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for " starling " and " common " respectively . The Old English <unk> , later stare , and the Latin <unk> are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . " <unk> " was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely <unk> " stare " to refer to birds of all ages . The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem " The <unk> 's Nest by My Window " . The International <unk> Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling . 
 The starling family , Sturnidae , is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The genus Sturnus is <unk> and relationships between its members are not fully resolved . The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling . The non @-@ migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian <unk> during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling . There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling . Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the <unk> of the fossil record for the family as a whole . 
 
 = = = Subspecies = = = 
 
 There are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary <unk> in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage . The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive <unk> means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities . 
 Subspecies 
 Birds from Fair Isle , St <unk> and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form , and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority . The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere , indicating some gene flow from <unk> or zetlandicus , subspecies formerly considered to be isolated . 
 Several other subspecies have been named , but are generally no longer considered valid . Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet . These include : S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1891 and S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and <unk> from western Russia ; S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1905 and S. v. <unk> <unk> and <unk> , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and <unk> from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the <unk> ; and S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1928 , an <unk> between <unk> and <unk> in northern Iran . S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( <unk> Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe . 
 
 = = Description = = 
 
 The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 6 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 7 in ) , the <unk> is 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) and the <unk> is 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The plumage is <unk> black , <unk> purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter . The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year . The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed . The legs are stout and <unk> or greyish @-@ red . The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases . <unk> occurs once a <unk> in late summer after the breeding season has finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance . The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off . Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile <unk> , especially on the head . They can usually be <unk> by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females . <unk> the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered . The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and <unk> standards . It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized <unk> , such as <unk> , <unk> or small <unk> , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs . In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat <unk> gait is also characteristic . The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of <unk> spots in adult breeding plumage . 
 Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping . Their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular @-@ shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds <unk> for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight . When in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in <unk> , form a compact mass or trail off into a <unk> stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion . Common starling on migration can fly at 60 – 80 km / h ( 37 – 50 mph ) and cover up to 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 km ( 620 – 930 mi ) . 
 Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing . This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ <unk> starlings ) , where the <unk> muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill . This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items . Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide . 
 In Iberia , the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour . At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings . 
 
 = = = Voice = = = 
 
 The common starling is a noisy bird . Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical @-@ sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds . The male is the main <unk> and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more . Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type , which follow each other in a regular order without pause . The bout starts with a series of pure @-@ tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song , a number of variable sequences that often incorporate <unk> of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man @-@ made noises . The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs . Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next . After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated <unk> followed by a final burst of high @-@ frequency song , again formed of several types . Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of <unk> . 
 Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded . In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in . Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones . Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider <unk> attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others . Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity . Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and <unk> less experienced males from encroaching . 
 Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the <unk> period . The <unk> are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion . The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood . Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , <unk> call and copulation call . The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings <unk> incessantly . They <unk> while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby . When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the <unk> movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive <unk> sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away . 
 
 = = Behaviour and ecology = = 
 
 The common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter . Although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - <unk> - may form near roosts . These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian <unk> . Flocks form a tight sphere @-@ like formation in flight , frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape , seemingly without any sort of leader . Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours . Very large roosts , exceptionally up to 1 @.@ 5 million birds , can form in city centres , woodlands or <unk> , causing problems with their droppings . These may accumulate up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , killing trees by their concentration of chemicals . In smaller amounts , the droppings act as a fertiliser , and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits . 
 Huge flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland , Denmark over the seaward <unk> of <unk> and <unk> municipalities between <unk> and <unk> . They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid @-@ April . Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes <unk> against the sky , a phenomenon known locally as sort <unk> ( " black sun " ) . Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before <unk> during mid @-@ winter . These flocks are commonly called <unk> . 
 
 = = = Feeding = = = 
 
 The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other <unk> . The food range includes spiders , crane flies , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , damsel flies , grasshoppers , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , flies , beetles , <unk> , bees , wasps and ants . Both adults and larvae are consumed and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards . While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises . The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily <unk> foods containing high levels of <unk> , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries . The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered <unk> <unk> . Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the <unk> return to their breeding colonies in spring . 
 There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food but for the most part , they forage close to the ground , taking insects from the surface or just underneath . Generally , common starlings prefer foraging amongst short @-@ cropped grasses and are often found among grazing animals or perched on their backs , where they will also feed on the mammal 's external parasites . Large flocks may engage in a practice known as " roller @-@ feeding " , where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best . The larger the flock , the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging . Flocks often feed in one place for some time , and return to previous successfully <unk> sites . 
 There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . " <unk> " involves the bird <unk> its beak into the ground randomly and <unk> until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill <unk> where the bird opens its beak in the soil to <unk> a hole . This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term <unk> , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . " <unk> " is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and " <unk> " is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . <unk> are caught by pulling from soil . Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 <unk> males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females , often <unk> the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material , which the female later <unk> upon accepting him as a mate . The amount of green material is not important , as long as some is present , but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate . The scent of plants such as <unk> acts as an olfactory <unk> to females . 
 The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest . Following copulation , the male and female continue to build the nest . Nests may be in any type of hole , common locations include inside <unk> trees , buildings , tree stumps and man @-@ made nest @-@ boxes . S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs , a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form . Nests are typically made out of straw , dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers , wool and soft leaves . Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation . 
 Common starlings are both monogamous and <unk> ; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female , occasionally the pair may have an extra <unk> . <unk> may be part of a colony , in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees . Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest . The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous . 
 
 = = = Breeding = = = 
 
 Breeding takes place during the spring and summer . Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days . If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it . There are normally four or five eggs that are <unk> in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance . The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels . The egg size is 26 @.@ 5 – 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter . 
 Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch . Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time <unk> them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost . The young are born blind and naked . They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days . Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest . Prior to that , the <unk> would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as <unk> and increasing the risk of chilling the <unk> . <unk> remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents . Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks . A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and <unk> the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of <unk> . Within two months , most juveniles will have <unk> and gained their first basic plumage . They acquire their adult plumage the following year . As with other <unk> , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' <unk> sacs are removed by the adults . 
 <unk> brood parasites are common in common starling nests . Female " <unk> " ( <unk> females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest . Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 <unk> 11 m . 
 
 = = Predators and parasites = = 
 
 A majority of starling predators are avian . The typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns . Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey . Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and Eurasian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and falcons including the peregrine falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , Eurasian <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) and common <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) . <unk> raptors like black and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> & <unk> ) , eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila <unk> ) , common <unk> ( Buteo <unk> ) and <unk> harrier ( Circus <unk> ) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles . While perched in groups by night , they can be vulnerable to owls , including the little owl ( Athene <unk> ) , long @-@ eared owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , short @-@ eared owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , barn owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , tawny owl ( <unk> <unk> ) and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( <unk> <unk> ) . 
 More than twenty species of hawk , owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America , though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban @-@ living peregrine falcons or <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) . Common <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) sometimes evict eggs , nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests , and the lesser <unk> ( <unk> minor ) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host . <unk> are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest <unk> however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers . Nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as stoats ( <unk> <unk> ) , raccoons ( Procyon <unk> ) and squirrels ( <unk> spp . ) , and cats may catch the <unk> . 
 Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites . A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite ; 99 % had external fleas , mites or ticks , and 95 % carried internal parasites , mostly various types of worm . Blood @-@ sucking species leave their host when it dies , but other external parasites stay on the corpse . A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with <unk> lice , presumably due to its inability to remove <unk> . 
 The hen flea ( <unk> gallinae ) is the most common flea in their nests . The small , pale house @-@ sparrow flea C. <unk> , is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species . This flea does not occur in the US , even on house <unk> . <unk> include <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . Other <unk> parasites include <unk> ticks and mites such as <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> gallinae , <unk> <unk> , O. <unk> , <unk> species , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . The hen <unk> D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory <unk> <unk> <unk> . The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests . 
 Flying insects that <unk> common starlings include the <unk> @-@ fly <unk> <unk> and the <unk> fly <unk> <unk> . The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the <unk> produced by growing plumage . <unk> of the moth <unk> <unk> are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as <unk> or dead nestlings . <unk> blood parasites of the genus <unk> have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode <unk> <unk> . This worm moves from the lungs to the <unk> and may cause its host to <unk> . In Britain , the <unk> and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm <unk> <unk> . 
 Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and <unk> @-@ induced <unk> . Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea @-@ leaves to the food . 
 
 = = Distribution and habitat = = 
 
 The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004 , occupying a total area of 8 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere , the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe , northern Africa ( from Morocco to Egypt ) , India ( mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives ) Nepal , the Middle East including Syria , Iran , and Iraq and north @-@ western China . 
 Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude <unk> are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce . Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south <unk> or south eastwards . In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa . Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross . Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries . Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated . In North America , northern populations have developed a migration pattern , <unk> much of Canada in winter . Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US . 
 Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites . <unk> are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy . They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian <unk> . Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e. rainforests or wet <unk> forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed . Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level . 
 
 = = = Introduced populations = = = 
 
 The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands . As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea . 
 
 = = = = South America = = = = 
 
 Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England <unk> near <unk> de <unk> in Venezuela in November 1949 , but subsequently vanished . In 1987 , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires . Since then , despite some initial attempts at eradication , the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) per year , keeping within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of the Atlantic coast . In Argentina , the species makes use of a variety of natural and man @-@ made nesting sites , particularly <unk> holes . 
 
 = = = = Australia = = = = 
 
 The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the <unk> of flax , a major agricultural product . Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later . By the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of <unk> committees . By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state . The wide and arid <unk> Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades . The common starling has also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island . 
 
 = = = = New Zealand = = = = 
 
 The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of <unk> and other insects deprived of their previous food sources . Native birds were not <unk> to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe to control the pests . It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson <unk> Society and other introductions followed . The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical <unk> Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south . 
 
 = = = = North America = = = = 
 
 After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene <unk> . He was president of the American <unk> Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America . About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon . These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . Common starlings <unk> in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction . The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America . 
 
 = = = = Polynesia = = = = 
 
 The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ <unk> and <unk> islands . It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the <unk> Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly <unk> between New Zealand and Fiji . Its spread in Fiji has been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability . Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group . 
 
 = = = = South Africa = = = = 
 
 In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes . It spread slowly and by 1954 had reached <unk> and Port Elizabeth . It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area . It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland <unk> , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , <unk> and around the town of <unk> in <unk> . In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his <unk> and pastures . It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects . It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition . It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may <unk> in large flocks , often roosting in <unk> . It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas . 
 
 = = = = West Indies = = = = 
 
 The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903 , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US . This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica , Grand <unk> and <unk> , and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas , eastern Cuba , the Cayman Islands , Puerto Rico and St. Croix . 
 
 = = Status = = 
 
 The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides . The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 . The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland . It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s . The low rate of advance , about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the <unk> mountain and woodland terrain . <unk> has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain . 
 Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( <unk> ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe . The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % . Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply . The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices . The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is <unk> reduced . 
 
 = = Relationship with humans = = 
 
 
 = = = <unk> and problems = = = 
 
 Since common starlings eat insect pests such as <unk> , they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia , and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere . Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union , and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass <unk> <unk> <unk> in New Zealand . The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully , and even in the US , where this is a pest species , the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings . 
 Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes . In North America , <unk> , <unk> , woodpeckers , purple <unk> and other swallows may be affected . In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the <unk> and eastern rosellas . For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species . 
 Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , <unk> , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly <unk> grain and sprouting crops . They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings . In eastern Australia , weeds like <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> are thought to have been spread by common starlings . Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually . This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States . 
 The large size of flocks can also cause problems . Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines , one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960 , when sixty @-@ two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and <unk> into the sea at Winthrop Harbor . 
 <unk> ' droppings can contain the fungus <unk> <unk> , the cause of <unk> in humans . At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings . There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated . 
 
 = = = Control = = = 
 
 Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings . Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation . For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year . In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year . This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected . In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long @-@ term results . Non @-@ lethal techniques such as <unk> with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case . 
 Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings . In 1949 , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London 's Big Ben that it stopped , leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting , repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls . An entire episode of The <unk> Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London . 
 Where it is introduced , the common starling is unprotected by legislation , and extensive control plans may be initiated . Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) diameter they need , and the removal of <unk> <unk> them from visiting bird <unk> . 
 Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895 . New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot , while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted . New methods are being developed , such as <unk> one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost . Another technique is to <unk> the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better <unk> strategies can be used . By 2009 , only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia , and the state committed a further A $ 400 @,@ 000 in that year to continue the eradication programme . 
 In the United States , common starlings are exempt from the <unk> Bird Treaty Act , which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds . No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults . Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable <unk> that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them . It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds . The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC @-@ <unk> , now marketed as <unk> . In 2008 , the United States government poisoned , shot or trapped 1 @.@ 7 million birds , the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed . In 2005 , the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds , around 45 % of the global total of 310 million . 
 
 = = = In science and culture = = = 
 
 Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals . Austrian <unk> Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon 's Ring as " the poor man 's dog " and " something to love " , because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after . They adapt well to captivity , and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and <unk> . Several birds may be kept in the same cage , and their <unk> makes them easy to train or study . The only disadvantages are their <unk> and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans . As a laboratory bird , the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic <unk> . 
 The common starling 's gift for mimicry has long been recognised . In the medieval Welsh <unk> , <unk> <unk> a common starling , " taught it words " , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , <unk> and <unk> , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her . Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare " The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer . But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll <unk> ' Mortimer ! ' <unk> I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . " 
 Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( <unk> . 453 ) . He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which had not yet been performed in public . He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later . It has been suggested that his A Musical <unk> ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , <unk> style of a starling 's <unk> . Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions . The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs . Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak . 
 Common starlings are trapped for food in some Mediterranean countries . The meat is tough and of low quality , so it is <unk> or made into <unk> . One recipe said it should be <unk> " until tender , however long that may be " . Even when correctly prepared , it may still be seen as an acquired taste . 
 
