 = Odaenathus = 
 
 Lucius Septimius Udaynath , <unk> as Odaenathus ( Aramaic : <unk> / <unk> ; Arabic : <unk> / Udaynath ; 220 – 267 ) , was the founder king ( Mlk ) of the Palmyrene Kingdom centered at the city of Palmyra , Syria . He lifted his city from the position of a regional center subordinate to Rome into the supreme power in the East . Odaenathus was born into an aristocratic Palmyrene family who had received Roman citizenship in the <unk> under the <unk> dynasty . He was the son of Hairan the descendant of Nasor . The circumstances surrounding his rise are ambiguous ; he became the lord ( Ras ) of the city , a position created for him , as early as the 240s and by 258 , he was styled a <unk> , indicating a high status in the Roman Empire . 
 The defeat and captivity of emperor Valerian at the hands of the Persian Sassanian monarch Shapur I in 260 left the eastern Roman provinces largely at the mercy of the Persians . Odaenathus stayed on the side of Rome ; assuming the title of king , he led the Palmyrene army and fell upon the Persians before they could cross the Euphrates to the eastern bank , and inflicted upon them a considerable defeat . Then , Odaenathus took the side of emperor Gallienus , the son and successor of Valerian , who was facing the <unk> of Fulvius Macrianus . The rebel declared his sons emperors , leaving one in Syria and taking the other with him to Europe . Odaenathus attacked the remaining <unk> and <unk> the rebellion . He was rewarded many exceptional titles by the emperor who formalized his self @-@ established position in the East . In reality , the emperor could have done little but to accept the declared nominal loyalty of Odaenathus . 
 In a series of rapid and successful campaigns starting in 262 , he crossed the Euphrates and recovered Carrhae and Nisibis . He then took the offensive to the <unk> of Persia , and arrived at the walls of its capital Ctesiphon . The city withstood the short siege but Odaenathus reclaimed the entirety of Roman lands occupied by the Persians since the beginning of their invasions in 252 . Odaenathus celebrated his victories and declared himself King of Kings , crowning his son Hairan I as co @-@ king . By 263 , Odaenathus was in effective control of the Levant , Mesopotamia and Anatolia 's eastern region . 
 Odaenathus observed all due <unk> towards the emperor , but in practice ruled as an independent monarch . In 266 , the king launched a second invasion of Persia but had to abandon the campaign and head north to <unk> to repel the attacks of <unk> riders besieging the city of Heraclea Pontica . He was assassinated in 267 during or immediately after the Anatolian campaign , together with Hairan . The identities of the perpetrator or the instigator are unknown and many stories , accusations and speculations exist in ancient sources . He was succeeded by his son Vaballathus under the regency of his widow Zenobia , who used the power established by Odaenathus to forge the Palmyrene Empire in 270 . 
 
 = = Name , Odaenathus I and origin = = 
 
 " Odaenathus " is the Roman version of the king 's name who was born Lucius Septimius Udaynath c . 220 AD . " Udaynath " is the king 's personal name , an Arabic name that means " little ear " . " Septimius " was the family 's <unk> ( surname ) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman <unk> dynasty , whose emperor Septimius <unk> granted the family Roman citizenship in the late second century . 
 In the Temple of <unk> at Palmyra , a stone block with a sepulchral inscription was found mentioning the building of a tomb and recording the genealogy of the builder : Odaenathus son of Hairan son of <unk> <unk> son of Nasor . Traditional scholarship believed the builder to be an ancestor of the king and he was given the designation " Odaenathus I " . In an inscription dated to 251 , the name of the " Ras " ( lord ) of Palmyra Hairan son of Odaenathus is written , and he was thought to be the son of Odaenathus I. 
 Prior to the 1980s , the earliest known inscription <unk> king Odaenathus was dated to 257 , leading traditional scholarship to believe that Hairan Ras of Palmyra is the father of the king and that Odaenathus I was his grandfather . However , an inscription published in 1985 by archaeologist Michael <unk> and dated to 252 mentions king Odaenathus as a " Ras " and records the same genealogy found in the sepulchral inscription confirming the name of king Odaenathus ' grandfather as <unk> <unk> . <unk> , it is certain that king Odaenathus is the builder of the tomb ruling out the existence of " Odaenathus I " . Ras Hairan mentioned in the 251 inscription is identical with Odaenathus ' elder son and co @-@ ruler prince Hairan I. 
 The origin of the family is <unk> , while the king himself appears to be of mixed <unk> and Arab descent ; his name is Arabic , while the names of his ancestors ( father Hairan and great grandfather Nasor ) are Aramaic . Zosimus asserted that Odaenathus descended from " illustrious forebears " , but the position of the family in Palmyra is debated ; it was probably part of the wealthy <unk> class . Alternatively , the family could have belonged to the tribal leadership who amassed a fortune as landowners and patrons of the Palmyrene <unk> . In Dura @-@ Europos , a relief dated to 159 was commissioned by Hairan son of <unk> son of Nasor ; this Hairan might have been the head of the Palmyrene trade colony in Dura @-@ Europos and probably belonged to the same family of Odaenathus . " Nasor " father of <unk> mentioned in the Dura @-@ Europos inscription could therefore be Odaenathus ' great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather . 
 
 = = Rise = = 
 
 Palmyra was an autonomous city subordinate to Rome and part of Syria Phoenice province . Odaenathus descended from an aristocratic family , albeit not a royal one as the city was ruled by a council and had no tradition of hereditary monarchy . <unk> inscriptions from Palmyra record the title of the Palmyrene ruler as " Ras " in Palmyrene and <unk> in Greek , meaning the " Lord of Palmyra " . The title was created for Odaenathus , and was not a usual title in the Roman Empire or a part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions ; whether it indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown , but the military role is more likely . 
 The rise of the aggressive <unk> Empire in 224 and the Iranian incursions which affected Palmyrene trade , combined with the weakness of the Roman empire , were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council 's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army . The " Ras " title enabled the bearer to tackle the difficult situation that arose due to the <unk> <unk> ; the supreme authority of the Ras probably made him the supreme civil and military commander with authority over the entire Palmyrene army , which was previously <unk> and led by different generals . 
 
 = = = Ras of Palmyra = = = 
 
 An undated inscription refers to Odaenathus as a Ras and records the gift of a throne to him by a Palmyrene citizen named " <unk> son of <unk> <unk> <unk> " , which confirms the supreme character of Odaenathus ' title . The earliest known inscriptions mentioning the title are dated to October 251 and April 252 ; the 251 inscription refer to Odaenathus ' eldest son Hairan I as Ras while the 252 inscription mention Odaenathus with that title . Hairan I was apparently elevated to co @-@ lordship status by his father . Although the written evidence for Odaenathus lordship dates to 251 , it is possible that he acquired the title as early as the 240s ; following the death of Roman emperor Gordian III in <unk> during a campaign against Persia , the Palmyrenes might have elected Odaenathus to defend the city . 
 Odaenathus was described as Roman senator in the undated tomb inscription and Hairan I was mentioned with the same title in the 251 inscription . <unk> opinions vary on the exact date of Odaenathus ' elevation to the position ; <unk> and Jean <unk> maintain that the <unk> rank predates the Ras elevation . <unk> Hartmann concludes that Odaenathus first became a Ras in the 240s then a senator in 250 . Another possibility is that the <unk> rank and lordship occurred simultaneously ; Odaenathus was chosen as a Ras following Gordian 's death , then after Philip the Arab concluded a peace with the Persians , the emperor ratified Odaenathus ' lordship and admitted him to the <unk> to guarantee Palmyra 's continuous subordination . 
 As early as the 240s , Odaenathus inflated the Palmyrene army , recruiting the desert nomads and increasing the numbers of the Palmyrene heavy cavalry units ( <unk> ) . In 252 , Persian emperor Shapur I started a full @-@ scale invasion of the Roman provinces in the east . During the second campaign of the invasion , Shapur conquered Antioch and headed south where his advance was checked in 253 by Emesa 's priest king <unk> <unk> . The events of 253 were mentioned in the works of the sixth century historian John Malalas who also mentioned a leader by the name " <unk> " inflicting a defeat upon the retreating Shapur near the Euphrates . " <unk> " is probably identical with Odaenathus , and while Malalas ' account indicate that Odaenathus defeated the Persians in 253 , there is no proof that the Palmyrene leader engaged Shapur before 260 and Malalas ' account seems to be confusing Odaenathus ' future actions during 260 with the events of 253 . 
 Shapur I destroyed the Palmyrene trade colonies all along the Euphrates ( including the colonies at <unk> in 253 and at Dura @-@ Europos in 256 ) ; Peter the <unk> says that Odaenathus approached Shapur to negotiate Palmyrene interests but was rebuffed and the gifts sent to the Persians were thrown into the river . The date for the attempted negotiations is debated ; Some scholars including John F. Drinkwater set the event in 253 while others such as <unk> Watson set it in 256 following the destruction of Dura @-@ Europos . 
 
 = = = Governor of Syria Phoenice = = = 
 
 Several inscriptions dating to the end of 257 or early 258 show Odaenathus bearing the title " <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( <unk> <unk> ) ; this could be a mere honoring or a sign that he was appointed as the <unk> of Phoenice . However , the title ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) was sometimes used in Syria to denote the provincial governor and William <unk> proposed that Odaenathus was indeed the governor of Phoenice . 
 Five of the inscriptions mentioning Odaenathus as consul are dated to the <unk> year <unk> ( 258 AD ) during which no governor for Phoenice is attested , which might indicate that this was Odaenathus ' year of governorship . In the city of Tyre , Phoenice 's capital , the lines " To Septimius Odaenathus , the most illustrious . The <unk> colony of Tyre " were found inscribed on a marble base ; the inscription is not dated and if it was set after 257 then it indicates that Odaenathus was appointed as the governor of the province . 
 These speculations cannot be proven without doubt but as a governor , Odaenathus would have been the highest authority in the province and above any <unk> commander and provincial officials ; this would make him the commander of the Roman forces in the province . Whatever the case may be , starting from 258 , Odaenathus strengthened his position and extended his political influence in the region . By 260 , Odaenathus held the rank , credibility and power to <unk> the Roman east following the Battle of Edessa . 
 
 = = = Edessa = = = 
 
 Faced with Shapur 's third campaign , the Roman emperor Valerian marched against the Persian monarch but was defeated near Edessa in late spring 260 and taken as a prisoner . The Persian emperor then ravaged <unk> , Cilicia and claimed to have captured Antioch , the metropolis of Syria . Taking advantage of the situation , Fulvius Macrianus , the commander of the imperial treasury , declared his sons Quietus and Macrianus Minor as joint emperors in August 260 opposing Valerian 's son Gallienus . Fulvius Macrianus took Antioch as his center and organized the resistance against Shapur ; he dispatched Balista , his <unk> prefect , to Anatolia . Shapur was defeated in the region of <unk> at <unk> prompting the Persians to evacuate Cilicia while Balista went back to Antioch . Balista 's victory was only partial , as Shapur withdrew east of Cilicia where the <unk> Persian units continued to occupy the area , while a Persian force took advantage of Balista 's return to Syria and headed further west in Anatolia . 
 
 = = Reign = = 
 
 According to the Augustan History , Odaenathus was declared king of Palmyra as soon as the news of the Roman defeat at Edessa reached the city . It is not known if Odaenathus contacted Fulvius Macrianus and there is no evidence that he took orders from him . 
 
 = = = Early Persian war and Syria = = = 
 
 Odaenathus assembled the Palmyrene army and Syrian peasants then marched north to meet the Persian emperor , who was back from Cilicia . The Palmyrene monarch fell upon the retreating Shapur at a place between <unk> and <unk> west of the Euphrates in late summer 260 . Odaenathus defeated the Persians , <unk> Shapur from the province of Syria . However , the <unk> kept the regions east of the Euphrates . 
 In the beginning of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus headed to Europe accompanied by Macrianus Minor leaving Quietus and Balista in Emesa . Odaenathus ' whereabouts during this episode are not clear ; he could have distributed the army in garrisons along the frontier or might have brought it back to his capital . The Palmyrene monarch seems to have waited until the situation clear , declaring loyalty neither to Fulvius Macrianus nor to Gallienus . In the spring of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus arrived in the Balkans but was defeated and killed along with Macrianus Minor ; Odaenathus then marched on Emesa where Quietus and Balista were staying . The <unk> killed Quietus as Odaenathus approached the city , while Balista was captured and executed by the king in autumn 261 . 
 
 = = = = Ruler of the East = = = = 
 
 The elimination of the usurpers left Odaenathus as the most powerful leader in the Roman east ; he was granted many titles by the emperor but those honors are debated among scholars : 
 <unk> <unk> ( commander of the Romans ) : was probably given to Odaenathus to recognize his position as the commander in chief of the forces in the east against the Persians ; it was inherited by Odaenathus ' son and successor Vaballathus . 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> ( commander of the entire East ) : it is generally accepted by modern scholars that he bore this title . The corrector had an overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region . There are no known <unk> of the title during Odaenathus ' lifetime . <unk> for the king bearing the title are two inscriptions in Palmyrene dialect ; one posthumous dedication describing him as MTQNNʿ of the East ( derived from the Aramaic root <unk> , meaning to set in order ) , and the other describing his heir Vaballathus with the same title albeit using the word <unk> instead of MTQNNʿ . 
 However , the sort of authority accorded by this position is widely discussed . The problem arise from the word MTQNNʿ ; its exact meaning is debated . The word is translated to Latin as corrector but <unk> is another possible translation ; the latter title was an honorary one meant to praise the bearer for driving enemies out of Roman territories . However , the inscription of Vaballathus is clearer as the word <unk> is not a Palmyrene word but a direct Palmyrene translation of the Greek term <unk> which is usually an equivalent to corrector . 
 According to David Potter , Vaballathus inherited his father 's exact titles . Hartmann points that there have been cases where a Greek word was translated directly to Palmyrene and a Palmyrene equivalent was also used to mean the same thing . The dedication to Odaenathus would be the using of a Palmyrene equivalent , while the inscription of Vaballathus would be the direct translation . Despite all the arguments , it cannot be certain without doubt that Odaenathus was a corrector . 
 <unk> <unk> <unk> ( emperor of the entire East ) : only the Augustan History claims that Odaenathus was conferred with this title , and also goes so far as to claim that he was made an Augustus ( co @-@ emperor ) following his defeat of the Persians . Both claims are dismissed by scholars . Odaenathus seems to have been acclaimed as <unk> by his troops which is a <unk> reserved for the Roman emperor ; this acclamation might explain the erroneous reports of the Augustan History . 
 Regardless of the titles , Odaenathus controlled the Roman East with the approval of Gallienus who could do little but to <unk> Odaenathus self achieved status and settle for his formal loyalty . Palmyra itself , although officially still part of the Roman empire , became a de facto allied state to Rome instead of a provincial city . Outside of Palmyra , Odaenathus ' authority extended from the <unk> coast in the north to Palestine in the south . This area included the Roman provinces of Syria , Phoenice , <unk> , Arabia , Anatolia 's eastern regions and later ( following the campaign of 262 ) <unk> and Mesopotamia . 
 
 = = = = First Persian campaign 262 = = = = 
 
 Perhaps driven by the will to take revenge for the destruction of Palmyrene trade centers and discourage Shapur from initiating future attacks , Odaenathus launched an invasion against the Persians . In the spring of 262 , the king marched north into the occupied Roman province of Mesopotamia , driving out the Persian garrisons and freeing Edessa and Carrhae . The first <unk> was aimed at Nisibis , which Odaenathus regained but sacked since the inhabitants were sympathetic toward the Persian occupation . The Palmyrene monarch destroyed the Jewish city of Nehardea , 45 km west of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , as he deemed the Jews of Mesopotamia loyal to Shapur . By late 262 or early 263 , Odaenathus stood at the walls of the Persian capital . 
 The exact route taken by Odaenathus from Palmyra to Ctesiphon remains uncertain ; it is probably similar to the route emperor Julian took in <unk> during his campaign against Persia . Using this route , Odaenathus would have crossed the Euphrates at <unk> then moved east to Edessa followed by Carrhae then Nisibis ; here , he would have descended south along the <unk> River to the Euphrates valley and marched alongside the river 's left bank to Nehardea . After taking the city , he penetrated the Sassanian province of <unk> and marched along the royal canal <unk> towards the <unk> where the Persian capital stood . 
 Once at Ctesiphon , Odaenathus immediately began the siege of the well @-@ fortified winter residence of the Persian kings ; severe damage was inflicted upon the surrounding areas due to the battles with Persian troops . The city held its ground and the logistical problems of fighting in enemy 's land probably prompted the Palmyrenes to lift the siege . Odaenathus headed north along the Euphrates carrying with him numerous prisoners and booty . The invasion resulted in the full restoration of the Roman lands ( <unk> and Mesopotamia provinces ) occupied by Shapur since the beginning of his invasions in 252 . However , Dura @-@ <unk> and other Palmyrene posts south of <unk> , such as <unk> , were not rebuilt . Odaenathus sent the captives to Rome and by the end of 263 , Gallienus added <unk> <unk> ( " The great victor in Persia " ) to his titles and held a triumph . 
 
 = = = King of Kings = = = 
 
 In 263 , after his return , Odaenathus assumed the title King of Kings of the East ( Mlk Mlk ) , and headed to Antioch , the traditional capital of Syria , where he crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings . The title was a symbol of legitimacy in the East , starting with the Assyrians then the <unk> who used it to symbolize their supremacy over all other rulers and was adopted by the <unk> monarchs following their defeat of the <unk> to legitimize their conquests . The first Sassanian monarch <unk> I adopted the title following his victory over the <unk> . Odaenathus ' son was crowned with a <unk> and a tiara ; the choice of the location was probably meant to express that the Palmyrene monarchs were now the successors of the <unk> and Iranian rulers who controlled Syria and Mesopotamia in the past . 
 
 = = = = <unk> with Rome = = = = 
 
 In the Roman empire 's hierarchical system , a vassal king usage of the King of Kings title did not indicate that he is a peer of the emperor or that the <unk> ties were cut . The title was probably a challenge not to the Roman emperor but to Shapur I ; Odaenathus was declaring that he , not the Persian monarch , was the legitimate King of Kings in the East . A <unk> depicting Hairan I shows him wearing a crown shaped like that of the <unk> monarchs , so it must have been Odaenathus ' crown ; this combination of title and imagery indicate that Odaenathus considered himself the rival of the <unk> and the protector of the region against them . 
 Odaenathus ' intents are questioned by some historians such as Drinkwater who attribute the attempted negotiations with Shapur to Odaenathus ' quest for power . However , in contrast to the norm of his period when powerful generals proclaimed themselves emperors , Odaenathus chose not to <unk> Gallienus ' throne , and minted no coins bearing his own image . The king had total control over his kingdom of Palmyra and effective control over the Roman East where his military authority was absolute . Odaenathus respected Gallienus ' privilege to appoint provincial governors , but dealt swiftly with opposition ; the Anonymus post Dionem mention the story of <unk> ( <unk> ) , a Roman official , who showed dissatisfaction with Odaenathus ' authority over the Persian frontier and was immediately executed by the king . 
 In general , Odaenathus ' actions were connected to his and Palmyra 's interests only ; his support of Gallienus and his Roman titles did not hide the Palmyrene base of his power and the local origin of his armies , as with his decision not to wait for the emperor to help in 260 . Odaenathus ' status seems to have been , as Watson put it , " something between powerful subject , independent vassal king and rival emperor " . 
 
 = = = = Administration = = = = 
 
 Outside his kingdom , Odaenathus had an overall administrative and military authority over the provincial governors of the Roman eastern provinces . Inside Palmyra , no Roman provincial official had any authority ; the king filled the government with Palmyrene staffs . In <unk> to the Iranian practice of making the government appear as a family enterprise , Odaenathus bestowed his own <unk> ( Septimius ) upon his leading generals and officials such as <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . 
 The Palmyrene constitutional institutions continued to function normally during Odaenathus ' reign ; he maintained the council and most civic establishments , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . When Odaenathus was on campaign , the kingdom was administered by a viceroy , Septimius <unk> . 
 
 = = = = Second Persian campaign 266 = = = = 
 
 Sources are silent regarding the events following the first Persian campaign but the silence in itself is an indication of the peace that prevailed and that the Persians stopped being a threat to the Roman East . The evidence for the second campaign is <unk> ; Zosimus is the only one to mention it specifically . A passage in the <unk> <unk> is interpreted by Hartmann as an indication of the second invasion . The campaign took place in 266 or 267 and was aimed directly at Ctesiphon ; Odaenathus reached the walls of the Persian capital but had to cancel the siege and march north to face the influx of <unk> riders attacking Anatolia . 
 
 = = = = Anatolian campaign = = = = 
 
 The Romans used the designation " <unk> " to denote many tribes regardless of ethnic origin and sometimes the term would be interchangeable with <unk> ; the tribes attacking Anatolia were probably the <unk> who built ships to cross the Black Sea in 267 and ravaged the coasts of <unk> @-@ Pontus besieging Heraclea Pontica . According to <unk> , Odaenathus arrived at Anatolia with Hairan I and headed to Heraclea but the riders were already gone . They loaded the spoils onto their ships but many perished in a sea battle probably conducted by Odaenathus ; another possibility is that they were shipwrecked . 
 
 = = Assassination = = 
 
 Odaenathus was assassinated along with Hairan I in late 267 ; the date is debated and some scholars propose 266 or 268 , but Vaballathus dated his first year of reign between August 267 and August 268 , making late 267 the most probable date . The assassination took place either in Anatolia , or in Syria while the king was returning to Palmyra ; there is no consensus on the manner , perpetrator or the motive behind the act . 
 According to <unk> , Odaenathus was assassinated near Heraclea Pontica trying to quell a tribal incursion into Pontus ; he gives the name of the assassin as another Odaenathus who may or may not have been a relative of the king . The assassin was killed by the king 's bodyguard . Hartmann support the theory that Odaenathus was killed in Pontus . 
 Zosimus simply mention that Odaenathus was killed by conspirators near Emesa at a friend 's birthday party without naming the killer . <unk> attributes the crime to a nephew of Odaenathus but does not give a name . 
 The Augustan History claims that a cousin of the king named Maeonius killed him , while the Anonymus post Dionem names the assassin as another Odaenathus . 
 
 = = = <unk> = = = 
 
 The stone block found in the Temple of <unk> bearing Odaenathus ' sepulchral inscription was brought from the tomb built by him ; this shrine 's location is unknown . At the western end of the Great <unk> at Palmyra , a shrine designated the " Funerary Temple no . 86 " ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located . Inside its chamber , steps lead down to a vault crypt which is now lost . This mausoleum might have belonged to the royal family , being the only tomb inside the city 's walls . 
 
 = = = Assassination theories = = = 
 
 Roman conspiracy : John <unk> accuse Gallienus of the assassination . An interesting passage in the work of the Anonymus post Dionem speaks of a certain " Rufinus " who orchestrated the assassination on his own initiative then explained his act to the emperor who <unk> the crime . This story talks about Rufinus ordering the murder of an older Odaenathus out of fear that he would rebel , and has the younger Odaenathus complaining to the emperor . Since the older Odaenathus ( Odaenathus I ) was proved to be a fictional character , the story was neglected by most scholars . However , according to Theodor <unk> , younger Odaenathus is an oblique reference to Vaballathus ; Rufinus should be identified with <unk> Rufinus , the Roman governor of Arabia between 261 / 262 . The evidence for a Roman conspiracy is very weak and can not be confirmed . 
 Family feud : According to <unk> , Odaenathus ' nephew <unk> during a lion hunt ; he made the first attack and killed the animal to the dismay of the king . Odaenathus warned the nephew who ignored the warning and repeated the act twice causing the king to deprive him of his horse which is a great insult in the East . The nephew threatened Odaenathus and was put in chains as a result ; Hairan I asked his father to forgive his cousin and his request was granted but as the king was drinking , the nephew approached him with a sword and killed him along with Hairan I. The bodyguard immediately executed the nephew . 
 Zenobia : the wife of Odaenathus was accused by the Augustan History of having formerly conspired with Maeonius , as Hairan I was her stepson and she could not accept that he was the heir to her husband instead of her own children . However , there is no suggestion in the Augustan History that Zenobia was involved in the event that saw her husband 's murder ; the act is attributed to Maeonius ' <unk> and jealousy . Those accounts by the Augustan History can be dismissed as fiction . The hints in modern scholarship that Zenobia had a hand in the assassination out of her desire to rule the empire and dismay with her husband 's pro @-@ Roman policy can be dismissed as there was no reversal of that policy during the first years following Odaenathus ' death . 
 Persian agents or Palmyrene <unk> : the possibility of a Persian involvement exists but the outcome of the assassination would not have served Shapur without establishing a pro @-@ Persian monarch on the Palmyrene throne . Another possibility would be Palmyrenes dissatisfied with Odaenathus ' reign and the changes of their city 's governmental system . 
 
 = = Family and succession = = 
 
 Odaenathus was married twice ; nothing is known about his first wife 's name or fate . Zenobia was the king 's second wife whom he married in the late <unk> when she was 17 or 18 years old . 
 The number of children Odaenathus had with his first wife is unknown and only one is attested : 
 Hairan I : the name appears on a 251 inscription from Palmyra describing him as Ras implying that he was already an adult by then . In the Augustan History , Odaenathus ' eldest son is named <unk> ; the inscription at Palmyra dating to 263 celebrating Hairan 's coronation mentions him with the name Herodianus . It is possible that Hairan of the 251 inscription is not the same as Herodianus of the 263 , but this is contested by Hartmann who conclude that the reason for the difference in the spelling is due to the language used in the inscription ( Herodianus being the Greek version ) , meaning that Odaenathus ' eldest son and co @-@ king is Hairan Herodianus . 
 The children of Odaenathus and Zenobia are : 
 Vaballathus : he is attested on several coins , inscriptions , and in the ancient literature . 
 <unk> II : his image appear on a seal impression along with his older brother Vaballathus as the sons of Zenobia ; his identity is much debated . Potter suggest that he is the same as Herodianus who was crowned in 263 and that Hairan I mentioned in 251 died before the birth of Hairan II . 
 <unk> and <unk> : the two were mentioned in the Augustan History and are not attested in any other source ; <unk> might be a <unk> of Hairan and Herodianus while <unk> is most probably a fabrication , although <unk> <unk> suggest that he might be Vaballathus . 
 Possible descendants of Odaenathus living in later centuries are reported ; " Lucia <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " is known through a dedication dating to the late third or early fourth century inscribed on a tombstone erected by a wet nurse to her " sweetest and most loving mistress " . The tombstone was found in Rome at the San Callisto in <unk> . Another possible relative is " Eusebius " who is mentioned by Libanius in <unk> as a son of an " Odaenathus " who was in turn a descendant from the king ; the father of Eusebius is mentioned as fighting against the Persians ( most probably in the ranks of emperor Julian ) . In 393 , Libanius mentioned that Eusebius promised him a speech written by <unk> for the king . In the fifth century , the philosopher " Syrian Odaenathus " lived in Athens and was a student of <unk> of Athens ; he might have been a distant descendant of the king . 
 The Augustan History claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after <unk> the king . Odaenathus was succeeded by his son , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus under the regency of Zenobia . Hairan II probably died soon after his father , as only Vaballathus succeeded to the throne . 
 
 = = Legacy = = 
 
 Odaenathus was the founder of the Palmyrene royal dynasty ; he left Palmyra the premier power in the East , and his actions laid the foundation of Palmyrene strength which culminated in the establishment of the Palmyrene Empire in 270 . Many writers wrote about <unk> of Odaenathus ; <unk> of <unk> probably accompanied the king on his campaigns and wrote a history of that period starting from Philip the Arab and ending shortly before the king 's death . According to Potter , <unk> ' account was meant to glorify Odaenathus and demonstrate his superiority over Roman emperors . 
 The memory of Odaenathus was highly esteemed in the Roman empire ; the Augustan History , written in the fourth century , places Odaenathus among the Thirty <unk> ( probably because he assumed the title of king ) . However , it speaks highly of his role in the Persian war and credit him with saving the empire : " Had not Odaenathus , prince of the Palmyrenes , seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian when the strength of the Roman state was exhausted , all would have been lost in the East " . 
 The king was praised by Libanius , and was the subject of a prophecy in the <unk> <unk> <unk> : " Then shall come one who was sent by the sun [ i.e. Odaenathus ] , a mighty and fearful lion , breathing much flame . Then he with much <unk> daring will destroy ... the greatest beast — venomous , fearful and emitting a great deal of <unk> [ i.e. Shapur ] " . 
 Odaenathus is viewed negatively in <unk> sources ; his <unk> of Nehardea <unk> the Jews , and he was cursed by the Babylonian Jews and the Jews of Palestine . 
 
 