 = Georgian scripts = 
 
 The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance , all three are <unk> , their letters share the same names and <unk> order , and are written horizontally following the standard left @-@ to @-@ right direction . Of the three Georgian writing systems , Mkhedruli ( literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " script ) was the civilian royal script of the Georgian Kingdom used for charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli is therefore the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only in ceremonial religious texts and iconography . 
 Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established ; however , in strictly structural terms , their <unk> order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds , which are grouped at the end . Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33 @-@ letter alphabet , as five letters are currently obsolete in that language . The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies . The Mingrelian language uses 36 , 33 of which are current Georgian letters , one obsolete Georgian letter , and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . That same obsolete letter , plus a letter borrowed from Greek ( making 35 letters total ) , are used in writing the Laz language . The fourth Kartvelian language , Svan , is not commonly written , but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian , with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by <unk> for its many vowels . 
 Georgian scripts hold the national status of cultural heritage in Georgia , and are currently nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO 's list of the <unk> Cultural Heritage of <unk> . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 
 = = Origins = = 
 
 The origins of the Georgian script are to this date poorly known , and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation , who designed the script and the main influences on that process . 
 The first version of the script attested is Asomtavruli which dates back to at least the 5th century ; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries . Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of a core Georgian @-@ speaking kingdom , that is , <unk> ( or Iberia in Classical sources ) . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King <unk> III ( 326 or 337 ) and the Bir el <unk> inscriptions of 430 , <unk> with the Armenian alphabet . It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor <unk> <unk> 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions , discovered by him at the ruined town of <unk> , in Georgia 's easternmost province of <unk> , in the 1980s , to the 1st or 2nd century has not been universally accepted . 
 A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of <unk> ( ca . 800 ) , assigns a much earlier , pre @-@ Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet , and names King <unk> I ( 3rd century BC ) as its inventor . This account is now considered legendary , and is rejected by scholarly consensus , as no archaeological confirmation has been found . <unk> considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to <unk> the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by <unk> Mashtots , and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions . Georgian linguist <unk> <unk> offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition , in the pre @-@ Christian use of foreign scripts ( <unk> in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts . 
 A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process . According to a number of scholars and medieval Armenian sources , <unk> Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created the Georgian and Caucasian <unk> alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots , and has been quoted by Donald <unk> and James R. Russell , but has been criticized by scholars , both Georgian and Western , who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later <unk> . Other scholars quote Koryun 's claims without taking a stance on its validity . Many agree , however , that Armenian clerics , if not Mashtots himself , must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script . 
 Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet , as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems , most notably the order and numeric value of letters . Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre @-@ Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers . 
 
 = = Asomtavruli = = 
 
 Asomtavruli ( Georgian : <unk> ) is the oldest Georgian script . The name Asomtavruli means " capital letters " , from <unk> ( <unk> ) " letter " and <unk> ( <unk> ) " principal / head " . It is also known as <unk> ( Georgian : <unk> ) " rounded " , from <unk> ( <unk> ) " round " , so named because of its round letter shapes . Despite its name , this " capital " script is unicameral , just like the modern Georgian script , Mkhedruli . 
 The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el <unk> and the <unk> inscriptions . 
 From the 9th century , Nuskhuri script starting becoming dominant , and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced . However , <unk> monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script . Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative . In the majority of 9th @-@ century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script , Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters . Although , some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century . 
 
 = = = Form of Asomtavruli letters = = = 
 
 In early Asomtavruli , the letters are of equal height . Georgian historian and <unk> <unk> <unk> believes that the direction of Asomtavruli , like that of Greek , was initially <unk> , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right . 
 In most Asomtavruli letters , straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles . The only letter with acute angles is <unk> ( ჯ jani ) . There have been various attempts to explain this exception . Georgian linguist and art historian Helen <unk> believes jani derives from a <unk> of Christ , composed of the <unk> ( ი ini ) and <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) . According to Georgian scholar <unk> <unk> , the cross @-@ like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet , and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter <unk> ( ) , Greek chi ( <unk> ) , and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician , Greek , or Latin . 
 Coins of Queen <unk> of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script , 1200 – 1210 AD . 
 From the 7th century , the forms of some letters began to change . The equal height of the letters was abandoned , with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders . 
 Note : Some fonts show " capitalized " ( tall ) variants of Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli letters rather than Asomtavruli . 
 
 = = = Asomtavruli illumination = = = 
 
 In Nuskhuri manuscripts , Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text . In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts , Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in <unk> ink . Later , from the 10th century , the letters were illuminated . The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text . For example , in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era , when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals . 
 <unk> Asomtavruli capital letters , <unk> ( m ) , <unk> ( n ) and <unk> ( t ) , 12 – 13th century . 
 From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ <unk> " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in <unk> and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century . 
 Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself . 
 Asomtavruli letter დ ( <unk> ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds . 
 The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are <unk> or <unk> on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli " Curly " form only . 
 The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form . 
 
 = = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = = 
 
 The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter : 
 
 = = Nuskhuri = = 
 
 Nuskhuri ( Georgian : <unk> ) is the second Georgian script . The name <unk> comes from <unk> ( <unk> ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called <unk> ( Georgian : <unk> , " clerical " , from <unk> ( <unk> " <unk> " ) , and it was principally used in hagiography . 
 Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the <unk> <unk> Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century . 
 
 = = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = = 
 
 Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are <unk> to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to <unk> the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts . 
 → → Asomtavruli letters ო ( oni ) and <unk> ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , უ <unk> . 
 Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters . 
 
 = = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = = 
 
 The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter : 
 
 = = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = = 
 
 Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone <unk> . Georgian linguist <unk> <unk> made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli . Patriarch <unk> II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts . 
 
 = = Mkhedruli = = 
 
 Mkhedruli ( Georgian : <unk> ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from <unk> ( <unk> ) meaning " <unk> " , " knight " , " warrior " and " <unk> " . 
 Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in <unk> <unk> Church dating back to <unk> AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli was used for non @-@ religious purposes only and represented the " civil " , " royal " and " secular " script . 
 Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though <unk> ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church . 
 
 = = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = = 
 
 Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets , Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops . 
 <unk> of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century . 
 " <unk> : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat <unk> " 
 <unk> of Queen <unk> of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD . 
 
 = = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = = 
 
 The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters : 
 
 = = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = = 
 
 The Society for the <unk> of <unk> among <unk> , founded by Prince <unk> <unk> in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant : 
 <unk> ( he ) , sometimes called " <unk> " or " e @-@ <unk> " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to <unk> <unk> , as in <unk> ~ <unk> krist <unk> ' Christ ' . 
 <unk> ( <unk> ) , also called <unk> , appeared instead of ი ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as ი ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus <unk> ~ <unk> krist <unk> " Christ " is now written <unk> krist <unk> . 
 <unk> ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as <unk> vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in <unk> > <unk> <unk> " others ' " . 
 <unk> ( <unk> , <unk> ) came to be pronounced the same as ხ ( khani ) , and was replaced by <unk> e.g. <unk> became <unk> " sovereign " . 
 <unk> ( <unk> ) was used for the <unk> <unk> ! and is now spelled <unk> . 
 All but <unk> ( <unk> ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; <unk> ( <unk> ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / <unk> / . Several others were used for <unk> and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script . 
 
 = = = Letters added to other alphabets = = = 
 
 Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters : 
 <unk> ( fi " <unk> " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and <unk> . It derives from the Greek letter <unk> ( <unk> ) . 
 <unk> ( <unk> " <unk> " ) , also called <unk> , is used for the <unk> sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and <unk> . 
 <unk> ( <unk> " alif " ) is used in for the <unk> stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 <unk> 〉 ( q 'ari ) . 
 <unk> ( turned gani ) was once used for [ <unk> ] in evangelical literature in <unk> languages . 
 <unk> ( <unk> " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ <unk> ] in <unk> . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 <unk> 〉 ( ‘ ain ) . 
 
 = = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = = 
 
 The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter : 
 ზ , ო , and ხ ( <unk> , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller <unk> , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print . 
 Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : <unk> , <unk> , ი , ო . 
 Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : <unk> , ზ , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , რ , ს , <unk> , <unk> , ძ , წ , ხ , <unk> 
 An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , <unk> , ვ , კ , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , უ , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , ც 
 Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like <unk> in Old English : <unk> , <unk> , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both <unk> and <unk> in print , and sometimes in handwriting . 
 
 = = = = Variation = = = = 
 
 There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( <unk> ) and the top stroke of რ ( <unk> ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o <unk> , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants : 
 გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom . 
 დ ( <unk> ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , . 
 კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , <unk> , <unk> ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( <unk> ) resembles a U with a <unk> in the right side . 
 <unk> ( <unk> ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two <unk> in it . 
 Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , . 
 რ ( <unk> ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 . 
 <unk> ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top . 
 წ ( <unk> <unk> ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl . 
 <unk> ( <unk> 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line . 
 <unk> ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a <unk> of ს and <unk> . 
 ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X " 
 
 = = = = Similar letters = = = = 
 
 Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting . 
 For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line . 
 For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( <unk> ) and <unk> ( <unk> ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( <unk> ) and ხ ( khani ) . 
 For კ ( k 'ani ) and <unk> ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up . 
 ძ ( <unk> ) is written with a vertical top . 
 
 = = <unk> , abbreviations and calligraphy = = 
 
 Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters . 
 A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King <unk> I of Iberia , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> , <unk> ) 
 A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters <unk> <unk> ( <unk> , da ) " and " 
 Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina <unk> , including <unk> called <unk> , which resemble <unk> . Because writing materials such as <unk> were scarce and therefore precious , <unk> was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century . 
 A Nuskhuri abbreviation of <unk> ( <unk> ) " which " 
 A Nuskhuri abbreviation of <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) " Jesus Christ " 
 Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ <unk> to the point that they were <unk> , requiring <unk> to a complex system . 
 A Mkhedruli ligature of <unk> ( da ) " and " 
 Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince <unk> <unk> and King <unk> of <unk> 
 
 = = Type faces = = 
 
 Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or <unk> type . 
 
 = = <unk> = = 
 
 In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word <unk> and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as <unk> , like − , 