text:
Last change on this file since 1677 was 1677, checked in by mulligan, 8 years ago

changes to paolo's english in the report, about a 1/4 of the way through

File size: 67.8 KB
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1
2\documentclass[11pt,epsf,a4wide]{article}
3\usepackage{../../style/cerco}
4\usepackage{pdfpages}
5
6\usepackage{graphics}
7
8% For SLNCS comment above and use
9% \documentclass{llncs}
10
11
12
13
14
15\RequirePackage[latin1]{inputenc}
16
17% Mettre les différents packages et fonctions que l'on utilise
18\usepackage[english]{babel}
19\usepackage{amsmath}
20\usepackage{amsfonts}
21\usepackage{amssymb}
22\usepackage{xspace}
23\usepackage{latexsym}
24\usepackage{url}
25\usepackage{xspace}
26%\usepackage{fancyvrb}
27%\usepackage[all]{xy}
28%packages pour LNCS
29%\usepackage{semantic}
30%\usepackage{cmll}
31% Packages for RR
32\usepackage{graphics,color}
33\RequirePackage[latin1]{inputenc}
34\usepackage{array}
35
36%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
37%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
38
39\newenvironment{comment}{{\bf MORE WORK:}}
40
41\newenvironment{restate-proposition}[2][{}]{\noindent\textbf{Proposition~{#2}}
42\;\textbf{#1}\
43}{\vskip 1em}
44
45\newenvironment{restate-theorem}[2][{}]{\noindent\textbf{Theorem~{#2}}\;\textbf{
46#1}\
47}{\vskip 1em}
48
49\newenvironment{restate-corollary}[2][{}]{\noindent\textbf{Corollary~{#2}}
50\;\textbf{#1}\
51}{\vskip 1em}
52
53\newcommand{\myparagraph}[1]{\medskip\noindent\textbf{#1}}
54
55\newcommand{\Proofitemb}[1]{\medskip \noindent {\bf #1\;}}
56\newcommand{\Proofitemfb}[1]{\noindent {\bf #1\;}}
57\newcommand{\Proofitem}[1]{\medskip \noindent $#1\;$}
58\newcommand{\Proofitemf}[1]{\noindent $#1\;$}
59\newcommand{\Defitem}[1]{\smallskip \noindent $#1\;$}
60\newcommand{\Defitemt}[1]{\smallskip \noindent {\em #1\;}}
61\newcommand{\Defitemf}[1]{\noindent $#1\;$}
62
63
64%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
65%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
66
67
68
69%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
70%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
71
72\newcommand{\eqdef}{=_{\text{def}}}
73\newcommand{\concat}{\cdot}%%{\mathbin{+}}
74\newcommand{\Int}{\mathit{int}}
75\newcommand{\nat}{\mathit{nat}}
76\newcommand{\String}{\mathit{string}}
77\newcommand{\Ident}{\mathit{ident}}
78\newcommand{\Block}{\mathit{block}}
79\newcommand{\Signature}{\mathit{signature}}
80
81\newcommand{\pc}{\mathit{pc}}
82\newcommand{\estack}{\mathit{estack}}
83\newcommand{\Error}{\epsilon}
84
85%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
86%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
87
88% --------------------------------------------------------------------- %
89% Proof rule.                                                           %
90% --------------------------------------------------------------------- %
91
92\newcommand{\staterule}[3]{%
93  $\begin{array}{@{}l}% 94 \mbox{#1}\\% 95 \begin{array}{c} 96 #2\\ 97 \hline 98 \raisebox{0ex}[2.5ex]{\strut}#3% 99 \end{array} 100 \end{array}$}
101
102\newcommand{\GAP}{2ex}
103
104\newcommand{\recall}[2]{%
105 $\begin{array}{c} 106 #1\\ 107 \hline 108 \raisebox{0ex}[2.5ex]{\strut}#2% 109 \end{array}$}
110
112depth-1.5mm\hfill}}
114height0.3mm\hfill}}
115\newcommand{\ratio}{.3}
116
117\newenvironment{display}[1]{\begin{tabbing}
118  \hspace{1.5em} \= \hspace{\ratio\linewidth-1.5em} \= \hspace{1.5em} \= \kill
119  \noindent\hbra\\[-.5em]
120  {\ }\textsc{#1}\\[-.8ex]
121  \hbox to \textwidth{\leaders\hrule height1.6mm depth-1.5mm\hfill}\\[-.8ex]
122  }{\\[-.8ex]\hket
123  \end{tabbing}}
124
125
126\newcommand{\sbline}{\hfill\smash[t]{\rule[1.5em]{\textwidth}{0.2ex}
127\hfill\hspace*{0ex}}}
128\newcommand{\sline}{\hfill\smash[t]{\rule[1.5em]{\textwidth}{0.1ex}
129\hfill\hspace*{0ex}}}
130\newcommand{\sentry}[2]{\>$#1$\>\ \smash[t]{\vrule width 0.2mm height
131    1.2\baselineskip depth 1.5\baselineskip}\>#2}
132
133\newcommand{\entry}[2]{\>$#1$\>\>#2}
134\newcommand{\clause}[2]{$#1$\>\>#2}
135\newcommand{\category}[2]{\clause{#1::=}{#2}}
136\newcommand{\subclause}[1]{\>\>\>#1}
137\newcommand{\redrule}[3]{$#1$\>\>$#2$\>\>\>#3}
138
139%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
140%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
141
142% environments
143
144% To be commented for LNCS
145 \newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}
146 \newtheorem{fact}[theorem]{Fact}
147 \newtheorem{definition}[theorem]{Definition}
148 \newtheorem{lemma}[theorem]{Lemma}
149 \newtheorem{corollary}[theorem]{Corollary}
150 \newtheorem{proposition}[theorem]{Proposition}
151 \newtheorem{example}[theorem]{Example}
152 \newtheorem{exercise}[theorem]{Exercise}
153 \newtheorem{remark}[theorem]{Remark}
154 \newtheorem{question}[theorem]{Question}
155 \newtheorem{proviso}[theorem]{Proviso}
156  \newtheorem{conjecture}[theorem]{Conjecture}
157
158% proofs
159
160\newcommand{\Proof}{\noindent {\sc Proof}. }
161\newcommand{\Proofhint}{\noindent {\sc Proof hint}. }
162% To be commented for LNCS
163 \newcommand{\qed}{\hfill${\Box}$}
164\newcommand{\EndProof}{\qed}
165
166% figure environment
167
168\newcommand{\Figbar}{{\center \rule{\hsize}{0.3mm}}}
169 %horizontal thiner line for figures
170\newenvironment{figureplr}[1][t]{\begin{figure}[#1] \Figbar}{\Figbar \end{figure}}
171%environment for figures
172%       ************Macros for mathematical symbols*************
173% Style
174
175\newcommand{\cl}[1]{{\cal #1}}          % \cl{R} to make R calligraphic
177\newcommand{\ra}{\rangle}
178
179\newcommand{\lf}{\lfloor}
180\newcommand{\rf}{\rfloor}
181\newcommand{\ul}[1]{\underline{#1}}     % to underline
182\newcommand{\ol}[1]{\overline{#1}}      % to overline
183\newcommand{\ok}{~ok}                   % well formed context
184
185% Syntax
186
187\newcommand{\Gives}{\vdash}             % in a type judgment
188\newcommand{\IGives}{\vdash_{I}}        % intuitionistic provability
189\newcommand{\AIGives}{\vdash_{{\it AI}}} %affine-intuitionistic provability
190\newcommand{\CGives}{\vdash_{C}}        % affine-intuitionistic confluent provability
191
192
193\newcommand{\Models}{\mid \! =}              % models
194
195\newcommand{\emptycxt}{\On}              % empty context
196\newcommand{\subs}[2]{[#1 / #2]}
197\newcommand{\sub}[2]{[#2 / #1]}         % substitution \sub{x}{U} gives [U/x]
198
199\newcommand{\Sub}[3]{[#3 / #2]#1}       % Substitution with three arguments \Sub{V}{x}{U}
200
201\newcommand{\lsub}[2]{#2 / #1}          % substitution \lsub{x}{U} gives U/x, to  be used in a list.
202
203\newcommand{\impl}{\supset}
204\newcommand{\arrow}{\rightarrow}        % right thin arrow
205\newcommand{\trarrow}{\stackrel{*}{\rightarrow}}        % trans closure
206%\newcommand{\limp}{\makebox[5mm]{\,$- \! {\circ}\,$}}   % linear
207                                % implication
208\newcommand{\limp}{\multimap} %linear implication
209\newcommand{\bang}{\, !}
210% LNCS
211%\newcommand{\bang}{\oc}
212\newcommand{\limpe}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\multimap}}
213\newcommand{\hyp}[3]{#1:(#2, #3)}
214\newcommand{\letm}[3]{{\sf let} \ ! #1 = #2 \ {\sf in} \ #3}    % modal let
215\newcommand{\lets}[3]{{\sf let} \ #1 = #2 \ {\sf in} \ #3}    % simple let
216\newcommand{\letp}[3]{{\sf let} \ \S #1 = #2 \ {\sf in} \ #3}    % paragraph let
217\newcommand{\tertype}{{\bf 1}}
218\newcommand{\behtype}{{\bf B}}
219\newcommand{\bt}[1]{{\it BT}(#1)}       % Boehm tree
220\newcommand{\cxt}[1]{#1[~]}             % Context with one hole
221\newcommand{\pr}{\parallel}             % parallel ||
222\newcommand{\Nat}{\mathbf{N}}                 % natural numbers
223\newcommand{\Natmax}{\mathbf{N}_{{\it max}}}  % natural numbers with minus infinity
224\newcommand{\Rat}{\mathbf{Q}^{+}}                 % non-negative rationals
225\newcommand{\Ratmax}{\mathbf{Q}^{+}_{{\it max}}}  % non-negative rationals with minus infinity
226\newcommand{\Alt}{ \mid\!\!\mid  }
227\newcommand{\isum}{\oplus}
228\newcommand{\csum}{\uplus}              %context sum
229\newcommand{\dpar}{\mid\!\mid}
230                                        % for the production of a grammar containing \mid
231\newcommand{\infer}[2]{\begin{array}{c} #1 \\ \hline #2 \end{array}}
232                                        % to make a centered inference rule
233
234% (Meta-)Logic
235
236\newcommand{\bool}{{\sf bool}}          % boolean values
237\newcommand{\Or}{\vee}                  % disjunction
238\newcommand{\OR}{\bigvee}               % big disjunction
239\newcommand{\AND}{\wedge}               % conjunction
240\newcommand{\ANDD}{\bigwedge}           % big conjunction
241\newcommand{\Arrow}{\Rightarrow}        % right double arrow
242\newcommand{\IFF}{\mbox{~~iff~~}}       % iff in roman and with spaces
243\newcommand{\iffArrow}{\Leftrightarrow} % logical equivalence
244
245% Semantics
246
247\newcommand{\dl}{[\![}                  % semantic [[
248\newcommand{\dr}{]\!]}                  % semantic ]]
249\newcommand{\lam}{{\bf \lambda}}        % semantic lambda
250
251
252% The equivalences for this paper
253
254% the usual ones
255\newcommand{\ubis}{\approx^u}          % usual labelled weak bis
256\newcommand{\uabis}{\approx^{u}_{ccs}} % usual labelled weak bis on CCS
257
258% the contextual conv sensitive
259\newcommand{\cbis}{\approx}        % convergence sensitive bis
260\newcommand{\cabis}{\approx_{ccs}}  % convergence sensitive bis on CCS
261
262% the labelled conv sensitive
263\newcommand{\lcbis}{\approx^{\ell}} %
264\newcommand{\lcabis}{\approx^{\ell}_{ccs}} % labelled convergence sensitive bis on CCS
265\newcommand{\lcbiswrong}{\approx^{\ell \Downarrow}} %
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273\newcommand{\maytest}{=_{\Downarrow}}
274\newcommand{\musttest}{=_{\Downarrow_{S}}}
275
276
277
278
279% Sets
280
281\newcommand{\prt}[1]{{\cal P}(#1)}      % Parts of a set
282\newcommand{\finprt}[1]{{\cal P}_{fin}(#1)}% Finite parts
283\newcommand{\finprtp}[1]{{\cal P}_{fin}^{+}(#1)}% Non-empty Finite parts
284\newcommand{\union}{\cup}               % union
285\newcommand{\inter}{\cap}               % intersection
286\newcommand{\Union}{\bigcup}            % big union
287\newcommand{\Inter}{\bigcap}            % big intersection
288\newcommand{\cpl}[1]{#1^{c}}            % complement
289\newcommand{\card}{\sharp}              % cardinality
290\newcommand{\minus}{\backslash}         % set difference
291\newcommand{\sequence}[2]{\{#1\}_{#2}}  % ex. \sequence{d_n}{n\in \omega}
292\newcommand{\comp}{\circ}               % functional composition
293%\newcommand{\oset}[1]{\{#1\}}            % set enumeration
294\newcommand{\mset}[1]{\{\! | #1 |\!\}}  % pseudo-set notation {| |}
295
296% Domains
297
298\newcommand{\two}{{\bf O}}              % Sierpinski space
299\newcommand{\join}{\vee}                % join
300\newcommand{\JOIN}{\bigvee}             % big join
301\newcommand{\meet}{\wedge}              % meet
302\newcommand{\MEET}{\bigwedge}           % big meet
303\newcommand{\dcl}{\downarrow}           % down closure
304\newcommand{\ucl}{\uparrow}             % up closure
305\newcommand{\conv}{\downarrow}          % synt. conv. pred. (postfix)
306\newcommand{\diver}{\uparrow}           % diverging term
307\newcommand{\Conv}{\Downarrow}          % sem. conv. pred. (postfix)
308\newcommand{\SConv}{\Downarrow_{S}}          % sem. conv. pred. (postfix)
309\newcommand{\CConv}{\Downarrow_{C}}
310\newcommand{\Diver}{\Uparrow}           % diverging map
311\newcommand{\cpt}[1]{{\cal K}(#1)}      % compacts, write \cpt{D}
312\newcommand{\ret}{\triangleleft}        % retract
313\newcommand{\nor}{\succeq}
314\newcommand{\prj}{\underline{\ret}}     % projection
315\newcommand{\parrow}{\rightharpoonup}   % partial function space
316\newcommand{\ub}[1]{{\it UB}(#1)}       % upper bounds
317\newcommand{\mub}[1]{{\it MUB}(#1)}     % minimal upper bounds
318\newcommand{\lift}[1]{(#1)_{\bot}}      % lifting
319\newcommand{\forget}[1]{\underline{#1}} % forgetful translation
320
321%\newcommand{\rel}[1]{\;{\cal #1}\;}     % infix relation (calligraphic)
322\newcommand{\rl}[1]{\;{\cal #1}\;}             % infix relation
323\newcommand{\rel}[1]{{\cal #1}}         %calligraphic relation with no
324                                        %extra space
325\newcommand{\per}[1]{\;#1 \;}
326\newcommand{\wddagger}{\natural}  % weak suspension
327%\newcommand{\wddagger}{=\!\!\!\!\parallel}  % weak suspension
328% Categories
329
330\newcommand{\pair}[2]{\langle #1 , #2 \rangle} % pairing \pair{x}{y}, do not use < >.
331
332%               *******  Notation for the $\pi$-calculus *********
333% Syntax:
334
335
336\newcommand{\fn}[1]{{\it fn}(#1)}                       % free names
337\newcommand{\bn}[1]{{\it bn}(#1)}                       % bound names
338\newcommand{\names}[1]{{\it n}(#1)}                     % names
339\newcommand{\true}{{\sf t}}                             % true
340\newcommand{\false}{{\sf f}}                            % false
341\newcommand{\pio}{\pi_1}                                % 1 receptor calculus
342\newcommand{\pioo}{\pi_{1}^{r}}
343\newcommand{\piom}{\pi_{1}^{-}}                         % 1 receptor calculus wo match
344\newcommand{\pioi}{\pi_{1I}}                    % 1 receptor I-calculus
345\newcommand{\pifo}{\pi_{\w{1f}}}                                % functional calculus
346\newcommand{\pilo}{\pi_{\w{1l}}}                                % located calculus
347\newcommand{\sort}[1]{{\it st}(#1)}                     % sort
348\newcommand{\ia}[1]{{\it ia}(#1)}                     % sort
349\newcommand{\ite}[3]{{\sf if~} #1 {\sf ~then~} #2 {\sf ~else~} #3}      %if then else
350\newcommand{\casep}[2]{{\sf case}^{\times}(#1, \pair{x}{y}\Arrow#2)}      %case on pairs
351\newcommand{\casel}[3]{{\sf case}^{L}(#1, #2, \s{cons}(x,y)\Arrow#3)}      %case on lists
352\newcommand{\caseb}[3]{{\sf case}^{b}(#1, #2, \s{cons}(x,y)\Arrow#3)}      %case on lists
353\newcommand{\nil}{{\sf nil}}
354\newcommand{\cons}{{\sf cons}}
355\newcommand{\idle}[1]{{\it Idle}(#1)}                   %idle process
356\newcommand{\conf}[1]{\{ #1 \}}                         %configuration
357\newcommand{\link}[2]{#1 \mapsto #2}                    %likn a ->b
358\newcommand{\mand}{\mbox{ and }}
359\newcommand{\dvec}[1]{\tilde{{\bf #1}}}                 %double vector
360\newcommand{\erloc}[1]{{\it er}_{l}(#1)}                % location erasure
361\newcommand{\w}[1]{{\it #1}}    %To write in math style
362\newcommand{\vcb}[1]{{\bf #1}}
363\newcommand{\lc}{\langle\!|}
364\newcommand{\rc}{|\!\rangle}
365\newcommand{\obj}[1]{{\it obj}(#1)}
366\newcommand{\move}[1]{{\sf move}(#1)}
367\newcommand{\qqs}[2]{\forall\, #1\;\: #2}
368\newcommand{\qtype}[4]{\forall #1 :  #2 . (#4,#3)}
369\newcommand{\xst}[2]{\exists\, #1\;\: #2}
370\newcommand{\xstu}[2]{\exists\, ! #1\;\: #2}
371\newcommand{\dpt}{\,:\,}
372\newcommand{\cond}[3]{\mathsf{if}\ #1\ \mathsf{then}\ #2\ \mathsf{else}\ #3}
373\newcommand{\s}[1]{{\sf #1}}    % sans-serif
374\newcommand{\vc}[1]{{\bf #1}}
375\newcommand{\lnorm}{\lbrack\!\lbrack}
376\newcommand{\rnorm}{\rbrack\!\rbrack}
377\newcommand{\sem}[1]{\underline{#1}}
378\newcommand{\tra}[1]{\langle #1 \rangle}
379\newcommand{\trb}[1]{[ #1 ]}
380\newcommand{\squn}{\mathop{\scriptstyle\sqcup}}
381\newcommand{\lcro}{\langle\!|}
382\newcommand{\rcro}{|\!\rangle}
383\newcommand{\semi}[1]{\lcro #1\rcro}
384\newcommand{\sell}{\,\ell\,}
385\newcommand{\SDZ}[1]{\marginpar{\textbf{SDZ:} {#1}}}
386
387\newcommand{\when}[3]{{\sf when}~#1~{\sf then}~#2~{\sf else}~#3}
388\newcommand{\wthen}[2]{{\sf when}~#1~{\sf then}~#2~}
389\newcommand{\welse}[1]{{\sf else}~#1}
390
391%Pour la fleche double, il faut rajouter :
392%      \usepackage{mathtools}
393
394\newcommand{\act}[1]{\xrightarrow{#1}} %labelled actionlow %high
395
396\newcommand{\lact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\makebox[5mm]{\,$- \! {\circ}\,$}}}
397
398\newcommand{\set}[1]{\{#1\}}
399\newcommand{\pst}[2]{{\sf pset}(#1,#2)}
400\newcommand{\st}[2]{{\sf set}(#1,#2)}
401\newcommand{\wrt}[2]{{\sf w}(#1,#2)}
402
403\newcommand{\chtype}[2]{{\it Ch_{#1}(#2)}}
404\newcommand{\rgtype}[2]{{\it {\sf Reg}_{#1} #2}}
405
406\newcommand{\get}[1]{{\sf get}(#1)}
407
408%\newcommand{\wact}[1]{\xRightarrow{#1}} %weak labelled action low high
409
410%\newcommand{\mact}[1]{\xrightarrow{#1}_{m}} %labelled action low %high
411
412%\newcommand{\wmact}[1]{\xRightarrow{#1}_{m}} %weak labelled action low high
413
414%\newcommand{\act}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\rightarrow}} %labelled action low
415                                %%%high
416
418                                %%%high
419
420
421%\newcommand{\actI}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\rightarrow_{1}}} %labelled action low
422\newcommand{\actI}[1]{\xrightarrow{#1}_{1}}
423
424%\newcommand{\actII}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\rightarrow_{2}}} %labelled action low
425\newcommand{\actII}[1]{\xrightarrow{#1}_{2}}
426
427
428 \newcommand{\wact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\Rightarrow}} %weak labelled action low high
429\newcommand{\wactI}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\Rightarrow_{1}}} %weak labelled action low high
430\newcommand{\wactII}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\Rightarrow_{2}}} %weak labelled action low high
431
432
433\newcommand{\mact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\rightarrow_{m}}} %labelled action low
434%high
435\newcommand{\wmact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\Rightarrow_{m}}} %weak labelled action low high
436
437%\newcommand{\lact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\leftarrow}}
438\newcommand{\lwact}[1]{\stackrel{#1}{\Leftarrow}}
439
440
441
442\newcommand{\eval}{\Downarrow}
443\newcommand{\Eval}[1]{\Downarrow^{#1}}
444
445
446\newcommand{\Z}{{\bf Z}}
447\newcommand{\Real}{\mathbb{R}^{+}}
448\newcommand{\Return}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{return}}\xspace}
449\newcommand{\Stop}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{stop}}\xspace}
450\newcommand{\Wait}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{wait}}\xspace}
452\newcommand{\Write}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{write}}\xspace}
453\newcommand{\Yield}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{yield}}\xspace}
454\newcommand{\Next}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{next}}\xspace}
456\newcommand{\Call}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{call}}\xspace}
457\newcommand{\Tcall}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{tcall}}\xspace}
458\newcommand{\Pop}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{pop}}\xspace}
459\newcommand{\Build}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{build}}\xspace}
460\newcommand{\Branch}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{branch}}\xspace}
461\newcommand{\Goto}{\ensuremath{\mathtt{goto}}\xspace}
462
463\newcommand{\hatt}[1]{#1^{+}}
464\newcommand{\Of}{\mathbin{\w{of}}}
465
466\newcommand{\susp}{\downarrow}
467\newcommand{\lsusp}{\Downarrow_L}
468\newcommand{\wsusp}{\Downarrow}
469\newcommand{\commits}{\searrow}
470
471
472\newcommand{\spi}{S\pi}
473
474
475 \newcommand{\pres}[2]{#1\triangleright #2} %TCCS else next (alternative)
476% \newcommand{\pres}[2]{ \lfloor #1 \rfloor (#2)}  %TCCS else next
477\newcommand{\present}[3]{{\sf present} \ #1 \ {\sf do } \ #2 \ {\sf  else} \ #3}
478
479
480\newcommand{\tick}{{\sf tick}}          %tick action
481
482
483
484\newcommand{\sbis}{\equiv_L}
485\newcommand{\emit}[2]{\ol{#1}#2}
486%\newcommand{\present}[4]{#1(#2).#3,#4}
487\newcommand{\match}[4]{[#1=#2]#3,#4}       %pi-equality
488
489\newcommand{\matchv}[4]{[#1 \unrhd #2]#3,#4}
490
491\newcommand{\new}[2]{\nu #1 \ #2}
492\newcommand{\outact}[3]{\new{{\bf #1}}{\emit{#2}{#3}}}
493\newcommand{\real}{\makebox[5mm]{\,$\|\!-$}}% realizability relation
494
495\newcommand{\regterm}[2]{{\sf reg}_{#1} #2}
497\newcommand{\store}[2]{(#1 \leftarrow #2)}
498\newcommand{\pstore}[2]{(#1 \Leftarrow #2)}
499
500\newcommand{\regtype}[2]{{\sf Reg}_{#1} #2}
501\newcommand{\uregtype}[3]{{\sf Reg}_{#1}(#2, #3)}
502\newcommand{\urtype}[2]{{\sf Reg}(#1, #2)}
503
504\newcommand{\upair}[2]{[#1,#2]}
505\newcommand{\letb}[3]{\mathsf{let}\;\oc #1 = #2\;\mathsf{in}\;#3}
506
507\newcommand{\vlt}[1]{{\cal V}(#1)}
508\newcommand{\prs}[1]{{\cal P}(#1)}
509
510\newcommand{\imp}{{\sf Imp}}            %imp language
511\newcommand{\vm}{{\sf Vm}}              %virtual machine language
512\newcommand{\mips}{{\sf Mips}}          %Mips language
513\newcommand{\C}{{\sf C}}                % C language
514\newcommand{\Clight}{{\sf Clight}}        %C light language
515\newcommand{\Cminor}{{\sf Cminor}}
516\newcommand{\RTLAbs}{{\sf RTLAbs}}
517\newcommand{\RTL}{{\sf RTL}}
518\newcommand{\ERTL}{{\sf ERTL}}
519\newcommand{\LTL}{{\sf LTL}}
520\newcommand{\LIN}{{\sf LIN}}
522\newcommand{\ocaml}{{\sf ocaml}}
523\newcommand{\coq}{{\sf Coq}}
524\newcommand{\compcert}{{\sf CompCert}}
525%\newcommand{\cerco}{{\sf CerCo}}
526\newcommand{\cil}{{\sf CIL}}
528\newcommand{\absint}{{\sf AbsInt}}
529\newcommand{\framac}{{\sf Frama-C}}
530\newcommand{\powerpc}{{\sf PowerPc}}
531\newcommand{\lustre}{{\sf Lustre}}
532\newcommand{\esterel}{{\sf Esterel}}
533\newcommand{\ml}{{\sf ML}}
534
535\newcommand{\codeex}[1]{\texttt{#1}}   % code example
536
537\bibliographystyle{abbrv}
538
539\title{
540INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES\\
541(ICT)\\
542PROGRAMME\\
543\vspace*{1cm}Project FP7-ICT-2009-C-243881 \cerco{}}
544
545\date{ }
546\author{}
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562\usepackage[disable, colorinlistoftodos]{todonotes}
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577\begin{document}
578% \thispagestyle{empty}
579%
580% \vspace*{-1cm}
581% \begin{center}
582% \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{../style/cerco_logo.png}
583% \end{center}
584%
585% \begin{minipage}{\textwidth}
586% \maketitle
587% \end{minipage}
588%
589%
590% \vspace*{0.5cm}
591% \begin{center}
592% \begin{LARGE}
593% \bf
594% Report \\
595% Dependent Cost Labels
596% \\
597% \end{LARGE}
598% \end{center}
599%
600% \vspace*{2cm}
601% \begin{center}
602% \begin{large}
603% Version 0.1
604% \end{large}
605% \end{center}
606%
607% \vspace*{0.5cm}
608% \begin{center}
609% \begin{large}
610% Main Author:\\
611% Paolo Tranquilli
612% \end{large}
613% \end{center}
614%
615% \vspace*{\fill}
616% \noindent
617% Project Acronym: \cerco{}\\
618% Project full title: Certified Complexity\\
619% Proposal/Contract no.: FP7-ICT-2009-C-243881 \cerco{}\\
620%
622%
623% \newpage
624
625\listoftodos
626
627\section{Introduction}
628In~\cite{D2.1}, Armadio et al. propose an approach for building a compiler for a large fragment of the \textsc{c} programming language.
629The novelty of their proposal lies in the fact that their proposed design is capable of lifting execution cost information from the compiled code and presenting it to the user.
630This idea is foundational for the CerCo project, which strives to produce a mechanically certified version of such a compiler.
631
632To summarise, Armadio's proposal consisted of decorations' on the source code, along with the insertion of labels at key points.
633These labels are preserved as compilation progresses, from one intermediate language to another.
634Once the final object code is produced, such labels should correspond to the parts of the compiled code that have a constant cost.
635
636Two properties must hold of any cost estimate.
637The first property, paramount to the correctness of the method, is \emph{soundness}, that is, that the actual execution cost is bounded by the estimate.
638In the labelling approach, this is guaranteed if every loop in the control flow of the compiled code passes through at least one cost label.
639The second property, optional but desirable, is \emph{preciseness}: the estimate \emph{is} the actual cost.
640In the labelling approach, this will be true if, for every label, every possible execution of the compiled code starting from such a label yields the same cost before hitting another one.
641In simple architectures such as the 8051 micro-controller this can be guaranteed by placing labels at the start of any branch in the control flow, and by ensuring that no labels are duplicated.
642
643The reader should note that the above mentioned requirements must hold when executing the code obtained at the end of the compilation chain.
644So even if one is careful about injecting the labels at suitable places in the source code, the requirements might still fail because of two main obstacles:
645\begin{itemize}
646\item
647The compilation process introduces important changes in the control flow, inserting loops or branches.
648For example, the insertion of functions in the source code replacing instructions that are unavailable in the target architecture.
649This require loops to be inserted (for example, for multi-word division and generic shift in the 8051 architecture), or effort spent in providing unbranching translations of higher level instructions~\cite{D2.2}.
650\item
651Even if the compiled code \emph{does}---as far as the the syntactic control flow graph is concerned---respect the conditions for soundness and preciseness, the cost of blocks of instructions might not be independent of context, so that different passes through a label might have different costs.
652This becomes a concern if one wishes to apply the approach to more complex architectures, for example one with caching or pipelining.
653\end{itemize}
654The first point unveils a weakness of the current labelling approach when it comes to some common code transformations performed along a compilation chain.
655In particular, most \emph{loop optimizations} are disruptive, in the sense outlined in the first bulletpoint above.
656An example optimisation of this kind is \emph{loop peeling}.
657This optimisation is employed by compilers in order to trigger other optimisations, for example, dead code elimination or invariant code motion.
658Here, a first iteration of the loop is hoisted out of the body of the loop, possibly being assigned a different cost than later iterations.
659
660The second bulletpoint above highlights a difference between existing tools for estimating execution costs and CerCo's approach advocated in~\cite{D2.1}, in favour of those existing tools and to the detriment of Armadio's proposal.
661For example, the well known tool \s{aiT}~\cite{absint}---based on abstract interpretation---allows the user to estimate the worst-case execution time (\textsc{wcet}) of a piece of source code, taking into account advanced features of the target architecture.
662\s{aiT}'s ability to produce tight estimates of execution costs, even if these costs depend on the context of execution, would enhance the effectiveness of the CerCo compiler, either by integrating such techniques in its development, or by directly calling this tool when ascertaining the cost of blocks of compiled code.
663For instance, a typical case where cache analysis yields a difference in the execution cost of a block is in loops: the first iteration will usually stumble upon more cache misses than subsequent iterations.
664
665If one looks closely, the source of the weakness of the labelling approach as presented in~\cite{D2.1} is common to both points: the inability to state different costs for different occurrences of labels, where the difference might be originated by labels being duplicated along the compilation, or the costs being sensitive to the current state of execution.
666The preliminary work we present here addresses this weakness by introducing cost labels that are dependent on which iteration of its containing loops it occurs in.
667This is achieved by means of \emph{indexed labels}; all cost labels are decorated with formal indexes coming from the loops containing such labels.
668These indexes allow us to rebuild, even after multiple loop transformations, which iterations of the original loops in the source code a particular label occurrence belongs to.
669During the annotation stage of the source code, this information is presented to the user by means of \emph{dependent costs}.
670
671We concentrate on integrating the labelling approach with two loop transformations.
672For general information on general compiler optimisations (and loop optimisations in particular) we refer the reader to the vast literature on the subject (e.g.~\cite{muchnick,morgan}).
673
674\paragraph{Loop peeling}
675As already mentioned, loop peeling consists in preceding the loop with a copy of its body, appropriately guarded.
676This is used, in general, to trigger further optimisations, such as those that rely on execution information which can be computed at compile time, but which is erased by further iterations of the loop, or those that use the hoisted code to be more effective at eliminating redundant code.
677Integrating this transformation in to the labelling approach would also allow the integration of the common case of cache analysis explained above; the analysis of cache hits and misses usually benefits from a form of \emph{virtual} loop peeling~\cite{cacheprediction}.
678
679\paragraph{Loop unrolling}
680This optimisation consists of the repetition of several copies of the body of the loop inside the loop itself (inserting appropriate guards, or avoiding them altogether if enough information about the loop's guard is available at compile time).
681This can limit the number of (conditional or unconditional) jumps executed by the code and trigger further optimizations dealing with pipelining, if appropriate for the architecture.
682\\\\
683Whilst we cover only two loop optimisations in this report, we argue that the work presented herein poses a good foundation for extending the labelling approach, in order to cover more and more common optimisations, as well as gaining insight into how to integrate advanced cost estimation techniques, such as cache analysis, into the CerCo compiler.
684Moreover loop peeling itself has the fortuitous property of enhancing and enabling other optimisations.
685Experimentation with CerCo's untrusted prototype compiler, which implements constant propagation and partial redundancy elimination~\cite{PRE,muchnick}, show how loop peeling enhances those other optimisations.
686
687\paragraph{Outline}
688We will present our approach on a minimal toy' imperative language, \imp{} with \s{goto}s, which we present in \autoref{sec:defimp} along with formal definitions of the loop transformations.
689This language already presents most of the difficulties encountered when dealing with \textsc{c}, so we stick to it for the sake of this presentation.
690In Section~\autoref{sec:labelling} we summarize the labelling approach as presented in~\cite{D2.1}.
691Section~\autoref{sec:indexedlabels} presents \emph{indexed labels}, our proposal for dependent labels which are able to describe precise costs even in the presence of the various loop transformations we consider.
692Finally Section~\autoref{sec:conc} goes into more detail regarding the implementation of indexed labels in CerCo's untrusted compiler and speculates on further work on the subject.
693
694\section{\imp{} with goto}\label{sec:defimp}
695We briefly outline the toy language, \imp{} with \s{goto}s.
696The language was designed in order to pose problems for the existing labelling approach, and as a testing ground for our new notion of indexed labels.
697
698The syntax and operational semantics of our toy language are presented in \autoref{fig:minimp}.
699Note, we may augment the language further, with \s{break} and \s{continue}, at no further expense.
700\begin{figureplr}
701$$\begin{gathered} 702\begin{array}{nlBl>(R<)n} 703\multicolumn{4}{C}{\bfseries Syntax}\\ 704\multicolumn{4}{ncn}{ 705 \ell,\ldots \hfill \text{(labels)} \hfill x,y,\ldots \hfill 706\text{(identifiers)} 707\hfill e,f,\ldots \hfill \text{(expression)} 708}\\ 709P,S,T,\ldots &\gramm& \s{skip} \mid s;t 710\mid \sop{if}e\sbin{then}s\sbin{else}t 711\mid \sop{while} e \sbin{do} s \mid 712 x \ass e 713\\&\mid& 714\ell : s \mid \sop{goto}\ell& \spanr{-2}{statements}\\ 715\\ 716\multicolumn{4}{C}{\bfseries Semantics}\\ 717K,\ldots &\gramm& \s{halt} \mid S \cdot K & continuations 718\end{array} 719\\[15pt] 720\s{find}(\ell,S,K) \ass 721\left\{\begin{array}{lL} 722\bot & if S=\s{skip},\sop{goto} \ell' or x\ass e,\\ 723(T, K) & if S=\ell:T,\\ 724\s{find}(\ell,T,K) & otherwise, if S = \ell':T,\\ 725\s{find}(\ell,T_1,T_2\cdot K) & if defined and S=T_1;T_2,\\ 726\s{find}(\ell,T_1,K) & if defined and 727S=\sop{if}b\sbin{then}T_1\sbin{else}T_2,\\ 728\s{find}(\ell,T_2,K) & otherwise, if S=T_1;T_2 or 729\sop{if}b\sbin{then}T_1\sbin{else}T_2,\\ 730\s{find}(\ell,T,S\cdot K) & if S = \sop{while}b\sbin{do}T. 731\end{array}\right. 732\\[15pt] 733\begin{array}{lBl} 734(x:=e,K,s) &\to_P& (\s{skip},K,s[v/x]) \qquad\mbox{if }(e,s)\eval v \\ \\ 735 736(S;T,K,s) &\to_P& (S,T\cdot K,s) \\ \\ 737 738(\s{if} \ b \ \s{then} \ S \ \s{else} \ T,K,s) 739&\to_P&\left\{ 740\begin{array}{ll} 741(S,K,s) &\mbox{if }(b,s)\eval v \neq 0 \\ 742(T,K,s) &\mbox{if }(b,s)\eval 0 743\end{array} 744\right. \\ \\ 745 746 747(\s{while} \ b \ \s{do} \ S ,K,s) 748&\to_P&\left\{ 749\begin{array}{ll} 750(S,\s{while} \ b \ \s{do} \ S \cdot K,s) &\mbox{if }(b,s)\eval v \neq 0 \\ 751(\s{skip},K,s) &\mbox{if }(b,s)\eval 0 752\end{array} 753\right. \\ \\ 754 755 756(\s{skip},S\cdot K,s) &\to_P&(S,K,s) \\ \\ 757 758(\ell : S, K, s) &\to_P& (S,K,s) \\ \\ 759 760(\sop{goto}\ell,K,s) &\to_P& (\s{find}(\ell,P,\s{halt}),s) \\ \\ 761\end{array} 762\end{gathered}$$
763\caption{The syntax and operational semantics of \imp.}
764\label{fig:minimp}
765\end{figureplr}
766The precise grammar for expressions is not particularly relevant so we do not give one in full.
767For the sake of conciseness we also treat boolean and arithmetic expressions together (with the usual \textsc{c} convention of an expression being true iff non-zero).
768We may omit the \s{else} clause of a conditional if it leads to a \s{skip} statement.
769
770We will presuppose that all programs are \emph{well-labelled}, i.e.\ every label labels at most one occurrence of a statement in a program, and every \s{goto} points to a label actually present in the program.
771The \s{find} helper function has the task of not only finding the labelled statement in the program, but also building the correct continuation.
772The continuation built by \s{find} replaces the current continuation in the case of a jump.
773
774\paragraph{Further down the compilation chain}
775We abstract over the rest of the compilation chain.
776We posit the existence of a suitable notion of sequential instructions', wherein each instruction has a single natural successor to which we can add our own, for every language $L$ further down the compilation chain.
777
778\subsection{Loop transformations}
779We call a loop $L$ \emph{single-entry} in $P$ if there is no \s{goto} to $P$ outside of $L$ which jumps into $L$.\footnote{This is a reasonable aproximation: it defines a loop as multi-entry if it has an external but unreachable \s{goto} jumping into it.}
780Many loop optimisations do not preserve the semantics of multi-entry loops in general, or are otherwise rendered ineffective.
781Usually compilers implement a single-entry loop detection which avoids the multi-entry ones from being targeted by optimisations~\cite{muchnick,morgan}.
782The loop transformations we present are local, i.e.\ they target a single loop and transform it.
783Which loops are targeted may be decided by some \emph{ad hoc} heuristic.
784However, the precise details of which loops are targetted and how is not important here.
785
786\paragraph{Loop peeling}
787$$788\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S \mapsto \sop{if}b\sbin{then} S; \sop{while} b \sbin{do} S[\ell'_i/\ell_i] 789$$
790where $\ell'_i$ is a fresh label for any $\ell_i$ labelling a statement in $S$.
791This relabelling is safe for \s{goto}s occurring outside the loop because of the single-entry condition.
792Note that for \s{break} and \s{continue} statements, those should be replaced with \s{goto}s in the peeled body $S$.
793
794\paragraph{Loop unrolling.}
795$$796\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\mapsto 797\sop{while} b \sbin{do} (S ; 798 \sop{if} b \sbin{then} (S[\ell^1_i/\ell_i] ; 799 \cdots 800 \sop{if} b \sbin{then} S[\ell^n_i/\ell_i]) \cdots) 801$$
802where $\ell^j_i$ are again fresh labels for any $\ell_i$ labelling a statement
803in $S$. This is a willingly naïf version of loop unrolling, which usually
804targets less general loops. The problem it poses to Cerco's labelling approach
805are independent of the cleverness of the actual transformation.
806
807\section{Labelling: a quick sketch of the previous approach}\label{sec:labelling}
808Plainly labelled \imp{} is obtained adding to the code \emph{cost labels}
809(with metavariables $\alpha,\beta,\ldots$), and cost-labelled statements:
810$$S,T\gramm \cdots \mid \alpha: S$$
811Cost labels allow for some program points to be tracked along the compilation
812chain. For further details we refer to\cite{D2.1}.
813
814With labels the small step semantics turns into a labelled transition
815system and a natural notion of trace (i.e.\ lists of labels) arises.
816Evaluation of statements is enriched with traces, so that rules are like
817$$818\begin{array}{lblL} 819(\alpha: S, K,s) &\to[\alpha]_P (S,K,s)\\ 820(\s{skip}, S \cdot K,s) &\to[\varepsilon]_P (S, K, s)\\ 821& \text{etc.} 822\end{array}$$
823where we identify cost labels $\alpha$ with singleton traces and we use $\varepsilon$
824for the empty trace. Cost labels are emitted by cost-labelled statements only%
825\footnote{In the general case the evaluation of expressions can emit cost labels
826too (see \autoref{sec:conc}).}. We then write $\to[\lambda]\!\!^*$ for the transitive
827closure of the small step semantics which produces by concatenation the trace
828$\lambda$.
829
830\paragraph{Labelling.}
831Given an \imp{} program $P$ its \emph{labelling} $\alpha:\Ell(P)$ in $\ell-\imp$
832is
833defined by putting cost labels after every branching, at the start of both
834branches, and a cost label at the beginning of the program. So the relevant
835cases are
836\begin{aligned} 837 \Ell(\sop{if}e\sbin{then}S\sbin{else}T) &= 838 \sop{if}e\sbin{then}\alpha:\Ell(S)\sbin{else}\beta:\Ell(T)\\ 839 \Ell(\sop{while}e\sbin{do}S) &= 840 (\sop{while}e\sbin{do}\alpha:\Ell(S));\beta:\s{skip} 841 \end{aligned}
842where $\alpha,\beta$ are fresh cost labels, and while in other cases the
843definition just passes to sub-statements.
844
845\paragraph{Labels in the rest of the compilation chain.} All languages further
846down the chain get a new sequential statement $\sop{emit}\alpha$ whose effect is
847to be consumed in a labelled transition while keeping the same state. All other
848instructions guard their operational semantics and do not emit cost labels.
849
850Preservation of semantics throughout the compilation process is restated, in
851rough terms, as
852$$\text{starting state of P}\to[\lambda]\!\!^*\;\text{halting state} \iff 853 \text{starting state of \mathcal C(P)} \to[\lambda]\!\!^*\;\text{halting state},$$
854where $P$ is a program of a language along the compilation chain, starting and
855halting states depend on the language, and $\mathcal C$ is the
856compilation function\footnote{The case of divergent computations needs
857to be addressed too. Also, the requirement can be weakened by demanding some
858sort of equivalence of the traces rather than equality. Both these issues escape
859the scope of this presentation.}.
860
861\paragraph{Instrumentations}
862Let $\mathcal C$ be the whole compilation from $\ell\imp$ to the labelled
863version of some low-level language $L$. Supposing such compilation has not
864introduced any new loop or branching, we have that
865\begin{itemize}
866 \item every loop contains at least a cost label (\emph{soundness condition}),
867and
868 \item every branching has different labels for the two branches
869  (\emph{preciseness condition}).
870\end{itemize}
871With these two conditions, we have that each and every cost label in
872$\mathcal C(P)$ for any $P$ corresponds to a block of sequential instructions,
873to which we can assign a constant \emph{cost}\footnote{This in fact requires the
874machine architecture to be simple enough, or for some form of execution analysis
875to take place.} We can therefore assume a \emph{cost mapping} $\kappa_P$ from
876cost labels to natural numbers, assigning to each cost label $\alpha$ the cost
877of the block containing the single occurrance of $\alpha$.
878
879Given any cost mapping $\kappa$, we can enrich a labelled program so that a
880particular fresh variable (the \emph{cost variable} $c$) keeps track of the
881assumulation of costs during the execution. We call this procedure
882\emph{instrumentation} of the program, and it is defined recursively by
883$$884 \mathcal I(\alpha:S) = c \ass c + \kappa(\alpha) ; \mathcal I(S) 885$$
886while in all other cases the definition passes to substatements.
887
888\paragraph{The problem with loop optimizations.}
889Let us take loop peeling, and apply it to the labelling of a program without any
891$$892(\sop{while}e\sbin{do}\alpha:S);\beta:\s{skip} 893\mapsto 894(\sop{if}b\sbin{then} \alpha : S; \sop{while} b \sbin{do} \alpha : 895S[\ell'_i/\ell_i]); 896\beta:\s{skip}$$
897What happens is that the cost label $\alpha$ is duplicated into two distinct
898occurrences. If these two occurrences correspond to different costs in the
899compiled code, the best the cost mapping can do is to take the maximum of the
900two, preserving soundness (i.e.\ the cost estimate still bounds the actual one)
901but loosing preciseness (i.e.\ the actual cost would be strictly less than its
902estimate).
903
904\section{Indexed labels}\label{sec:indexedlabels}
905This section presents the core of the new approach. In brief points it amounts
906to the following.
907\begin{enumerate}[\bfseries \ref*{sec:indexedlabels}.1.]
908 \item\label{en:outline1}
909Enrich cost labels with formal indexes corresponding, at the beginning of
910the process, to which iteration of the loop they belong to.
911 \item\label{en:outline2}
912Each time a loop transformation is applied and a cost labels is split in
913different occurrences, each of these will be reindexed so that every time they
914are emitted their position in the original loop will be reconstructed.
915 \item\label{en:outline3}
916Along the compilation chain, add alongside the \s{emit} instruction other
917ones updating the indexes, so that iterations of the original loops can be
918rebuilt at the operational semantics level.
919 \item\label{en:outline4}
920The machinery computing the cost mapping will still work, but assigning
921costs to indexed cost labels, rather than to cost labels as we wish: however
922\emph{dependent costs} can be calculated, where dependency is on which iteration
923of the containing loops we are in.
924\end{enumerate}
925
926\subsection{Indexing the cost labels}\label{ssec:indlabs}
927\paragraph{Formal indexes and $\iota\ell\imp$.}
928Let $i_0,i_1,\ldots$ be a sequence of distinguished fresh identifiers that will
929be used as loop indexes. A \emph{simple expression} is an affine arithmetical
930expression in one of these indexes, that is $a*i_k+b$ with $a,b,k \in \mathbb N$.
931Simple expressions $e_1=a_1*i_k+b_1$, $e_2=a2*i_k+b_2$ in the same index can be
932composed, yielding $e_1\circ e_2\ass (a_1a_2)*i_k + (a_1b2+b_1)$, and this operation
933has an identity element in $id_k \ass 1*i_k+0$. Constants can be expressed as simple
934expressions, so that we identify a natural $c$ with $0*i_k+c$.
935
936An \emph{indexing} (with metavariables $I$, $J$, \ldots) is a list of
937transformations of successive formal indexes dictated by simple expressions,
938that is a mapping%
939\footnote{Here we restrict each mapping to be a simple expression
940\emph{on the same index}. This might not be the case if more loop optimizations
941are accounted for (for example, interchanging two nested loops).}
942$$i_0\mapsto a_0*i_0+b_0,\dots, i_{k-1} \mapsto a_{k-1}*i_{k-1}+b_{k-1}.$$
943
944An \emph{indexed cost label} (metavariables $\alphab$, $\betab$, \ldots) is
945the combination of a cost label $\alpha$ and an indexing $I$, written
946$\alpha\la I\ra$. The cost label underlying an indexed one is called its
947\emph{atom}. All plain labels can be considered as indexed ones by taking
948an empty indexing.
949
950\imp{} with indexed labels ($\iota\ell\imp$) is defined by adding to $\imp$
951statements with indexed labels, and by having loops with formal indexes
952attached to them:
953$$S,T,\ldots \gramm \cdots i_k:\sop{while}e\sbin{do}S\mid \alphab : S.$$
954Notice than unindexed loops still are in the language: they will correspond
955to multi-entry loops which are ignored by indexing and optimizations.
956We will discuss the semantics later.
957
958\paragraph{Indexed labelling.}
959Given an $\imp$ program $P$, in order to index loops and assign indexed labels
960we must first of all distinguish single-entry loops. We just sketch how it can
961be computed.
962
963A first pass of the program $P$ can easily compute two maps: $\s{loopof}_P$
964from each label $\ell$ to the occurrence (i.e.\ the path) of a $\s{while}$ loop
965containing $\ell$, or the empty path if none exists; and $\s{gotosof}_P$ from
966a label $\ell$ to the occurrences of \s{goto}s pointing to it. Then the set
967$\s{multientry}_P$ of multi-entry loops of $P$ can be computed by
968$$\s{multientry}_P\ass\{\, p \mid \exists \ell,q.p =\s{loopof}_P(\ell),q\in\s{gotosof}_P(\ell), q \not\le p\,\}$$
969where $\le$ is the prefix relation\footnote{Possible simplification to this
970procedure include keeping track just of while loops containing labels and
971\s{goto}s (rather than paths in the syntactic tree of the program), and making
972two passes while avoiding building the map to sets $\s{gotosof}$}.
973
974Let $Id_k$ be the indexing of length $k$ made from identity simple expressions,
975i.e.\ the sequence $i_0\mapsto id_0, \ldots , i_{k-1}\mapsto id_{k-1}$. We define the tiered indexed labelling
976$\Ell^\iota_P (S,k)$ in program $P$ for occurrence $S$ of a statement in $P$
977and a natural $k$ by recursion, setting
978$$979\Ell^\iota_P(S,k)\ass 980\left\{ 981\begin{array}{lh{-100pt}l} 982 (i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}\alpha\la Id_{k+1}\ra : \Ell^\iota_P(T,k+1));\beta\la Id_k \ra : \s{skip} 983\\& \text{if S=\sop{while}b\sbin{do}T and S\notin \s{multientry}_P,}\\[3pt] 984(\sop{while}b\sbin{do}\alpha\la Id_k \ra : \Ell^\iota_P(T,k));\beta\la Id_k \ra : \s{skip} 985\\& \text{otherwise, if S=\sop{while}b\sbin{do}T,}\\[3pt] 986\sop{if}b\sbin{then} \alpha\la Id_k \ra : \Ell^\iota_P(T_1,k) \sbin{else} \beta\la Id_k \ra : \Ell^\iota_P(T_2,k) 987\\&\text{if S=\sop{if}b\sbin{then}T_1\sbin{else}T_2,}\\[3pt] 988\ldots 989\end{array} 990\right. 991$$
992where as usual $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are to be fresh cost labels, and other cases just keep
993making the recursive calls on the substatements. The \emph{indexed labelling} of
994a program $P$ is then defined as $\alpha\la \ra : \Ell^\iota_P(P,0)$, i.e.\ a
995further fresh unindexed cost label is added at the start, and we start from level $0$.
996
997In other words: each single-entry loop is indexed by $i_k$ where $k$ is the number of
998other single-entry loops containing this one, and all cost labels under the scope
999of a single-entry loop indexed by $i_k$ are indexed by all indexes $i_0,\ldots,i_k$,
1000without any transformation.
1001
1002\subsection{Indexed labels and loop transformations}
1003We define the \emph{reindexing} $I \circ (i_k\mapsto a*i_k+b)$ as an operator
1004on indexings by setting
1005\begin{multline*}
1006(i_0\mapsto e_0,\ldots, i_k \mapsto e_k,\ldots,i_n\mapsto e_n)
1007\circ(i_k\mapsto a*i_k+b)
1008\ass\\
1009i_0\mapsto e_0,\ldots, i_k \mapsto e_k \circ(a*i_k+b),\ldots,i_n\mapsto e_n,
1010\end{multline*}
1011and extending then to indexed labels (by $\alpha\la I\ra\circ(i_k\mapsto e)\ass 1012\alpha\la I\circ (i_k\mapsto e)\ra$) and to statements in $\iota\ell\imp$
1013(by applying the above transformation to all indexed labels).
1014
1015We can then redefine loop peeling and loop unrolling taking into account indexed labels.
1016It will be possible to apply the transformation only to indexed loops, that is loops
1017that are single-entry. The attentive reader will notice that no assumption is
1018made on the labelling of the statements involved. In particular the transformation
1019can be repeated and composed at will. Also, notice that erasing all labelling
1020information (i.e.\ indexed cost labels and loop indexes) we recover exactly the
1021same transformations presented in \autoref{sec:defimp}.
1022
1023\paragraph{Indexed loop peeling.}
1024
1025$$1026i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\mapsto 1027\sop{if}b\sbin{then} S\circ (i_k\mapsto 0); i_k : \sop{while} b \sbin{do} S[\ell'_i/\ell_i]\circ(i_k\mapsto i_k + 1) 1028$$
1029As can be expected, the peeled iteration of the loop gets reindexed as always
1030being the first iteration of the loop, while the iterations of the remaining
1031loop get shifted by $1$.
1032
1033\paragraph{Indexed loop unrolling.}
1034$$1035\begin{array}{l} 1036\begin{array}{ncn} 1037i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\\ 1038\tikz\node[rotate=-90,inner sep=0pt]{\mapsto}; 1039\end{array}\\ 1040i_k:\sop{while} b \sbin{do}\\ 1041\quad (S\circ(i_k\mapsto n*i_k) ;\\ 1042\quad \sop{if} b \sbin{then}\\ 1043\quad\quad (S[\ell^1_i/\ell_i]\circ(i_k\mapsto n*i_k+1) ;\\ 1044\quad\quad\quad \vdots \\ 1045\quad\quad \quad \sop{if} b \sbin{then}\\ 1046\quad \quad \quad \quad S[\ell^n_i/\ell_i]\circ(i_k\mapsto n*i_k+n-1) 1047)\cdots ) 1048\end{array} 1049$$
1050Again, the reindexing is as can be expected: each copy of the unrolled body
1051has its indexes remapped so that when they are executed the original iteration
1052of the loop to which they correspond can be recovered.
1053
1054\subsection{Semantics and compilation of indexed labels}
1055
1056In order to make sense of loop indexes, one must keep track of their values
1057in the state. A \emph{constant indexing} (metavariables $C,\ldots$) is an
1058indexing which employs only constant simple expressions. The evaluation
1059of an indexing $I$ in a constant indexing $C$, noted $I|_C$, is defined
1060by
1061$$I\circ(i_0\mapsto c_0,\ldots, i_{k-1}\mapsto c_{k-1}) \ass 1062 \alphab\circ(i_0\mapsto c_0)\circ\cdots\circ(i_{k-1}\mapsto c_{k-1})$$
1063(using the definition of ${-}\circ{-}$ given in \autoref{ssec:indlabs}), considering it defined only
1064if the the resulting indexing is a constant one too\footnote{For example
1065$(i_0\mapsto 2*i_0,i_1\mapsto i_1+1)|_{i_0\mapsto 2}$ is undefined,
1066but $(i_0\mapsto 2*i_0,i_1\mapsto 0)|_{i_0\mapsto 2}= 1067i_0\mapsto 4,i_1\mapsto 2$, which is indeed a constant indexing,
1068even if the domain of the original indexing is not covered by the constant one.}.
1069The definition is extended to indexed labels by $\alpha\la I\ra|_C\ass \alpha\la I|_C\ra$.
1070
1071Constant indexings will be used to keep track of the exact iterations of the
1072original code the emitted labels belong to. We thus define two basic actions to
1073update constant indexings: $C[i_k{\uparrow}]$ which increments the value of
1074$i_k$ by one, and $C[i_k{\downarrow}0]$ which resets it to $0$.
1075
1076We are ready to update the definition of the operational semantics of
1077indexed labelled \imp. The emitted cost labels will now be ones indexed by
1078constant indexings. We add a special indexed loop construct for continuations
1079that keeps track of active indexed loop indexes:
1080$$K,\ldots \gramm \cdots | i_k:\sop{while} b \sbin {do} S \sbin{then} K$$
1081The difference between the regular stack concatenation
1082$i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\cdot K$ and the new constructor is that the latter
1083indicates the loop is the active one in which we already are, while the former
1084is a loop that still needs to be started%
1085\footnote{In the presence of \s{continue} and \s{break} statements active
1086loops need to be kept track of in any case.}.
1087The \s{find} function is updated accordingly with the case
1088$$\s{find}(\ell, i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S, K) \ass \s{find}(\ell, S, i_k: 1089 \sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\sbin{then}K).$$
1090The state will now be a 4-uple
1091$(S,K,s,C)$ which adds a constant indexing to the 3-uple of regular
1092semantics. The small-step rules for all statements but the
1093cost-labelled ones and the indexed loops remain the same, without
1094touching the $C$ parameter (in particular unindexed loops behave the same
1095as usual). The remaining cases are:
1096\begin{aligned} 1097 (\alphab : S,K,s,C) &\to[\alphab|_C]_P (S,K,s,C)\\ 1098 (i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S,K,C) &\to[\varepsilon]_P 1099 \begin{cases} 1100 (S,i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\sbin{then} K,s,C[i_k{\downarrow}0]) 1101 \\\hskip 125pt \text{if (b,s)\eval v\neq 0,}\\ 1102 \rlap{(\s{skip}, K, s, C)}\hskip 125pt \text{otherwise} 1103 \end{cases}\\ 1104 (\s{skip}, i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\sbin{then}K,C) &\to[\varepsilon]_P 1105 \begin{cases} 1106 (S,i_k:\sop{while}b\sbin{do}S\sbin{then} K,s,C[i_k{\uparrow}]) 1107 \\\hskip 125pt \text{if (b,s)\eval v\neq 0,}\\ 1108 \rlap{(\s{skip}, K, s, C)} \hskip 125pt \text{otherwise} 1109 \end{cases} 1110 \end{aligned}
1111Some explications are in order.
1112\begin{itemize}
1113 \item Emitting a label always instantiates it with the current indexing.
1114 \item Hitting an indexed loop the first time initializes to 0 the corresponding
1115  index; continuing the same loop inrements the index as expected.
1116 \item The \s{find} function ignores the current indexing: this is correct
1117  under the assumption that all indexed loops are single entry ones, so that
1118  when we land inside an indexed loop with a \s{goto}, we are sure that its
1119  current index is right.
1120  \item The starting state with store $s$ for a program $P$ is
1121$(P,\s{halt},s,(i_0\mapsto 0,\dots,i_{n-1}\mapsto 0)$ where $i_0,\ldots,i_{n-1}$ cover
1122all loop indexes of $P$\footnote{For a program which is the indexed labelling of an
1123\imp{} one this corresponds to the maximum nesting of single-entry loops. We can also
1124avoid computing this value in advance if we define $C[i{\downarrow}0]$ to extend
1125$C$'s domain as needed, so that the starting constant indexing can be the empty one.}.
1126\end{itemize}
1127
1128\paragraph{Compilation.}
1129Further down the compilation chain the loop
1130structure is usually partially or completely lost. We cannot rely on it anymore
1131to ensure keeping track of original source code iterations. We therefore add
1132alongside the \s{emit} instruction two other sequential instructions
1133$\sop{ind_reset}k$ and $\sop{ind_inc}k$ whose sole effect is to reset to
11340 (resp.\ increment by 1) the loop index $i_k$, as kept track of in a constant
1135indexing accompanying the state.
1136
1137The first step of compilation from $\iota\ell\imp$ consists in prefixing the
1138translation of an indexed loop $i_k:\s{while}\ b\ \s{do}\ S$ with
1139$\sop{ind_reset}k$ and postfixing the translation of its body $S$ with
1140$\sop{ind_inc}k$. Later on in the compilation chain we just need to propagate
1141the instructions dealing with cost labels.
1142
1143We would like to stress the fact that this machinery is only needed to give a
1144suitable semantics of observables on which preservation proofs can be done. By no
1145means the added instructions and the constant indexing in the state are meant
1146to change the actual (let us say denotational) semantics of the programs. In this
1147regard the two new instruction have a similar role as the \s{emit} one. A
1148forgetful mapping of everything (syntax, states, operational semantics rules)
1149can be defined erasing all occurrences of cost labels and loop indexes, and the
1150result will always be a regular version of the language considered.
1151
1152\paragraph{Stating the preservation of semantics.} In fact, the statement of preservation
1153of semantics does not change at all, if not for considering traces of evaluated
1154indexed cost labels rather than traces of plain ones.
1155
1156
1157\subsection{Dependent costs in the source code}\label{ssec:depcosts}
1158The task of producing dependent costs out of the constant costs of indexed labels
1159is quite technical. Before presenting it here, we would like to point out that
1160the annotations produced by the procedure described in this subsection, even
1161if correct, can be enormous and unreadable. In \autoref{sec:conc}, when we will
1162detail the actual implementation, we will also sketch how we mitigated this
1163problem.
1164
1165Having the result of compiling the indexed labelling $\Ell^\iota(P)$ of an \imp{}
1166program $P$, we can still suppose that a cost mapping can be computed, but
1167from indexed labels to naturals. We want to annotate the source code, so we need
1168a way to express and compute costs of cost labels, i.e.\ group the costs of
1169indexed labels to ones of their atoms. In order to do so we introduce
1170\emph{dependent costs}. Let us suppose that for the sole purpose of annotation,
1171we have available in the language ternary expressions of the form
1172$$\tern e {f_1}{f_2},$$
1173and that we have access to common operators on integers such as equality, order
1174and modulus.
1175
1176\paragraph{Simple conditions.}
1177First, we need to shift from \emph{transformations} of loop indexes to
1178\emph{conditions} on them. We identify a set of conditions on natural numbers
1179which are able to express the image of any composition of simple expressions.
1180
1181\emph{Simple conditions} are of three possible forms:
1182\begin{itemize}
1183 \item equality $i_k=n$ for some natural $n$;
1184 \item inequality $i_k\ge n$ for some natural $n$;
1185 \item modular equality together with inequality $i_k\bmod a = b\wedge i_k\ge n$
1186  for naturals $a, b, n$.
1187\end{itemize}
1188The always true simple condition is given by $i_k\ge 0$, and similarly we
1189write $i_k\bmod a = b$ as a simple condition for $i_k\bmod a = b\wedge i_k\ge 0$.
1190Given a simple condition $p$ and a constant indexing $C$ we can easily define
1191when $p$ holds for $C$ (written $p\circ C$). A \emph{dependent cost expression}
1192is an expression built solely out of integer constants and ternary expressions
1193with simple conditions at their head. Given a dependent cost expression $e$ where
1194all of the loop indexes appearing in it are in the domain of a constant indexing
1195$C$, we can define the value $e\circ C\in \mathbb N$ by
1196$$n\circ C\ass n,\qquad (\tern p e f)\circ C\ass 1197\begin{cases} 1198 e\circ C& \text{if p\circ C,}\\ 1199 f\circ C& \text{otherwise.} 1200\end{cases}$$
1201
1202\paragraph{From indexed costs to dependent ones.}
1203Every simple expression $e$ corresponds to a simple condition $p(e)$ which expresses the
1204set of values that can be the result of it. Following is the definition of such
1205relation. We recall that in this development loop indexes are always mapped to
1206simple expressions over the same index. If it was not the case, the condition
1207obtained from an expression should be on the mapped index, not the indeterminate
1208of the simple expression. We leave to further work all generalizations of what
1209we present here.
1210$$1211p(a*i_k+b)\ass 1212\begin{cases} 1213i_k = b & \text{if a = 0,}\\ 1214i_k \ge b & \text{if a = 1,}\\ 1215i_k\bmod a = b \wedge i_k \ge b & \text{otherwise}. 1216\end{cases}$$
1217Now, suppose we are given a mapping $\kappa$ from indexed labels to natural
1218numbers. We will transform it in a mapping (identified with an abuse of notation
1219with the same symbol $\kappa$) from atoms to \imp{} expressions built with
1220ternary expressions which depend solely on loop indexes. To that end we define
1221an auxiliary function $\kappa^\alpha_L$ parameterized by atoms and words of
1222simple expressions and defined on \emph{sets} of $n$-uples of simple expressions
1223(with $n$ constant across each such set, i.e.\ each set is made of words with
1224the same length).
1225
1226We will employ a bijection between words of simple expressions and indexings,
1227given by\footnote{Lists of simple expressions is in fact how indexings are
1228represented in Cerco's current implementation of the compiler.}
1229$$i_0\mapsto e_0,\ldots,i_{k-1}\mapsto e_{k-1} \cong e_0\cdots e_{k-1}.$$
1230As usual, $\varepsilon$ denotes the empty word/indexing, and juxtaposition
1231word concatenation.
1232
1233For every set $s$ of $n$-uples of simple expressions, we are in one of the following
1234three exclusive cases:
1235\begin{itemize}
1236 \item $S=\emptyset$, or
1237 \item $S=\{\varepsilon\}$, or
1238 \item there is a simple expression $e$ such that $S$ can be decomposed in
1239  $eS'+S''$, with $S'\neq \emptyset$ and none of the words in $S''$ starting with $e$
1240\end{itemize}
1241where $eS'$ denotes prepending $e$ to all elements of $S'$ and $+$ is disjoint
1242union. This classification can serve as the basis of a definition by recursion
1243on $n+\card S$ where $n$ is the size of tuples in $S$ and $\card S$ is its cardinality.
1244Indeed in the third case in $S'$ the size of tuples decreases strictly (and
1245cardinality does not increase) while for $S''$ the size of tuples remains the same
1246but cardinality strictly decreases. The expression $e$ of the third case will be chosen
1247as minimal for some total order\footnote{The specific order used does not change
1248the correctness of the procedure, but different orders can give more or less
1249readable results. A `good'' order is the lexicographic one, with $a*i_k+b \le a'*i_k+b'$
1250if $a<a'$ or $a=a'$ and $b\le b'$.}.
1251
1252Following is the definition of the auxiliary function $\kappa^\alpha_L$, following
1253the recursion scheme presented above.
12541255\begin{aligned} 1256\kappa^\alpha_L(\emptyset) &\ass 0\\ 1257\kappa^\alpha_L(\{\varepsilon\}) &\ass \kappa(\alpha\la L\ra) \\ 1258\kappa^\alpha_L(eS'+S'') &\ass \tern{p(e)}{\kappa^\alpha_{Le}(S')}{\kappa^\alpha_L(S'')} 1259\end{aligned} 1260
1261
1262Finally, the wanted dependent cost mapping is defined by
1263$$\kappa(\alpha)\ass\kappa^\alpha_\varepsilon(\{\,L\mid \alpha\la L\ra \text{ appears 1264in the compiled code}\,\}).$$
1265
1266\paragraph{Indexed instrumentation.}
1267The \emph{indexed instrumentation} generalizes the instrumentation presented in
1268\autoref{sec:labelling}.
1269We described
1270above how cost atoms can be mapped to dependent costs. The instrumentation must
1271also insert code dealing with the loop indexes. As instrumentation is done
1272on the code produced by the labelling phase, all cost labels are indexed by
1273identity indexings. The relevant cases of the recursive definition
1274(supposing $c$ is the cost variable) are then
12751276\begin{aligned} 1277\mathcal I^\iota(\alpha\la Id_k\ra:S) &= c\ass c + \kappa(\alpha);\mathcal I^\iota(S)\\ 1278\mathcal I^\iota(i_k : \sop{while}b\sbin{do}S) &= 1279 i_k \ass 0; \sop{while}b\sbin{do}(\mathcal I^\iota (S); i_k \ass i_k + 1) 1280\end{aligned} 1281
1282
1283\section{Notes on the implementation and further work}\label{sec:conc}
1284Implementing the indexed label approach in CerCo's untrusted OcaML prototype
1285does not introduce many aspects beyond what has already been presented for the toy
1286language \imp{} with \s{goto}s. \s{Clight}, the fragment of \s{C} which is the
1287source language of CerCo's compilation chain~\cite{D2.1}, has several more fetaures,
1288but few demand changes in the indexed labelled approach.
1289\paragraph{Indexed loops vs index update instructions.} In this presentation
1290we had indexed loops in $\iota\ell\imp$, while we hinted at the fact that later
1291languages in the compilation chain would have specific index update instructions.
1292In CerCo's actual compilation chain from \s{Clight} to 8051 assembly, indexed
1293loops are only in \s{Clight}, while from \s{Cminor} onward all languages have
1294the same three cost-involving instructions: label emitting, index resetting and
1295index incrementing.
1296\paragraph{Loop transformations in the front end.} We decided to implement
1297the two loop transformations in the front end, namely in \s{Clight}. This
1298decision is due to user readability concerns: if costs are to be presented to
1299the programmer, they should depend on structures written by the programmer
1300himself. If loop transformation were performed later it would be harder to
1301relate information on loops in the control flow graph with actual loops
1302written in the source code. Another solution would be however to index
1303loops in the source code and then use these indexes later in the compilation
1304chain to pinpoint explicit loops of the source code: loop indexes can be used
1305to preserve such information just like cost labels.
1306\paragraph{Break and continue statements.} \s{Clight}'s loop flow control
1307statements for breaking and continuing a loop are equivalent to appropriate
1308\s{goto} statements. The only difference is that we are assured that they cannot
1309cause loops to be multi-entry, and that when a transformation such as loop
1310peeling is done, they need to be replaced by actual \s{goto}s (which will happen
1311further down the compilation chain anyway).
1312\paragraph{Function calls.} Every internal function definition has its own
1313space of loop indexes. Executable semantics must thus take into account saving
1314and resetting the constant indexing of current loops upon hitting a function
1315call, and restoring it upon return of control. A peculiarity is that this cannot
1316be attached to actions saving and restoring frames: namely in the case of
1317tail calls the constant indexing needs to be saved whereas the frame does not.
1318\paragraph{Cost-labelled expressions.} In labelled \s{Clight} expressions get
1319cost labels too, because of the presence of ternary conditional expressions
1320(and lazy logical operators, which get translated to ternary expressions too).
1321Adapting the indexed labelled approach to cost-labelled expressions does not
1322pose particular problems.
1323
1324\paragraph{Simplification of dependent costs}
1325As previously mentioned, the na\"{i}ve application of the procedure described in~\autoref{ssec:depcosts} produces unwieldy cost annotations.
1326In our implementation several transformations are used to simplify such complex dependent costs.
1327
1328Disjunctions of simple conditions are closed under all logical operations, and it can be computed whether such a disjunction implies a simple condition or its negation.
1329This can be used to eliminate useless branches of dependent costs, to merge branches that share the same value, and possibly to simplify the third case of simple condition.
1330Examples of the three transformations are respectively:
1331\begin{itemize}
1332\item $1333\verb+(_i_0 == 0)?+x\verb+:(_i_0 >= 1)?+y\verb+:+z 1334\mapsto 1335\verb+(_i_0 == 0)?+x\verb+:+y, 1336$
1337\item $1338c\texttt{?}x\verb+:(+d\texttt{?}x\texttt{:}y\verb+)+ 1339\mapsto 1340\texttt{(}c\texttt{ || }d\texttt{)?}x\texttt{:}y, 1341$
1342\item \begin{tabular}[t]{np{\linewidth}n}
1343$\verb+(_i_0 == 0)?+x\verb+:(_i_0 % 2 == 0 && _i_0 >= 2)?+y\verb+:+z 1344\mapsto$ \\\hfill
1345$\verb+(_i_0 == 0)?+x\verb+:(_i_0 % 2 == 0)?+y\verb+:+z. 1346$\end{tabular}
1347\end{itemize}
1348The second transformation tends to accumulate disjunctions, to the detriment of readability.
1349A further transformation swaps two branches of the ternary expression if the negation of the condition can be expressed with fewer clauses.
1350For example:
1351$$\verb+(_i_0 % 3 == 0 || _i_0 % 3 == 1)?+x\verb+:+y \mapsto 1352\verb+(_i_0 % 3 == 2)?+y\verb+:+x. 1353$$
1354
1355\paragraph{Updates to the frama-C cost plugin}
1356Cerco's frama-C~\cite{framac} cost plugin\todo{is there a reference for this?}{} has been updated to take into account our new notion of dependent costs.
1357The frama-c framework expands ternary expressions to branch statements, introducing temporaries along the way.
1358This makes the task of analyzing ternary cost expressions rather daunting.
1359It was deemed necessary to provide an option in the compiler to use actual branch statements for cost annotations rather than ternary expressions, so that at least frama-C's use of temporaries in cost annotation could be avoided.
1360The cost analysis carried out by the plugin now takes into account such dependent costs.
1361
1362The only limitation (which provided a simplification in the code) is that within a dependent cost simple conditions with modulus on the
1363same loop index should not be modulo different numbers, which corresponds to
1364the reasonable limitation of not applying multiple times loop unrolling to
1365the same loops.
1366\paragraph{Further work.}
1367Indexed labels are for now implemented only in the untrusted OcaML compiler,
1368while they are not present yet in the Matita code. Porting them should pose no
1369significant problem, and then the proof effort should begin.
1370
1371Because most of the executable operational semantics of the languages across the
1372front end and the back end are oblivious to cost labels, it should be expected
1373that the bulk of the semantic preservation proofs that still needs to be done
1374will not get any harder because of indexed labels. The only trickier point
1375would be in the translation of \s{Clight} to \s{Cminor}, where we
1376pass from structured indexed loops to atomic instructions on loop indexes.
1377
1378An invariant which should probably be proved and provably preserved along compilation
1379is the non-overlap of indexings for the same atom. Then, supposing cost
1380correctness for the unindexed approach, the indexed one will just need to
1382$$\forall C\text{ constant indexing}.\forall \alpha\la I\ra\text{ appearing in the compiled code}. 1383 \kappa(\alpha)\circ (I\circ C) = \kappa(\alpha\la I \ra).$$
1384$C$ represents a snapshot of loop indexes in the compiled code, while
1385$I\circ C$ is the corresponding snapshot in the source code. Semantics preservation
1386will make sure that when with snapshot $C$ we emit $\alpha\la I\ra$ (that is,
1387we have $\alpha\la I\circ C\ra$ in the trace), this means that $\alpha$ must be
1388emitted in the source code with indexing $I\circ C$, so the cost
1389$\kappa(\alpha)\circ (I\circ C)$ applies.
1390
1391Apart from carrying over the proofs, we would like to extend the approach
1392to more loop transformations. Important examples are loop inversion
1393(where a for loop is reversed, usually to make iterations appear as truly
1394independent) or loop interchange (where two nested loops are swapped, usually
1395to have more loop invariants or to enhance strength reduction). This introduces
1396interesting changes to the approach, where we would have indexings such as
1397$$i_0\mapsto n - i_0\quad\text{or}\quad i_0\mapsto i_1, i_1\mapsto i_0.$$
1398In particular dependency over actual variables of the code would enter the
1399frame, as indexings would depend on the number of iterations of a well-behaving
1400guarded loop (the $n$ in the first example).
1401
1402Finally, as stated in the introduction, the approach should allow integrating
1403some techniques for cache analysis, a possibility that for now has been put aside
1404as the standard 8051 architecture targeted by the CerCo project has no cache.
1405As possible developments of this line of work without straying from the 8051
1406architecture, two possibilities present themselves.
1407\begin{enumerate}
1408 \item One could extend the development to some 8051 variants, of which some have
1409  been produced with a cache.
1410 \item One could make the compiler implement its own cache: this cannot
1411  apply to RAM accesses of the standard 8051 architecture, as the difference in
1412  cost of accessing the two types of RAM is of just 1 clock cycle, which makes
1413  any implementation of cache counterproductive. So this possibility should
1414  either artificially change the accessing cost of RAM of the model just for the
1415  sake of possible future adaptations to other architectures, or otherwise
1416  model access to an external memory by means of the serial port.\end{enumerate}
1417
1418
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