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## Wednesday, December 04, 2013 ... //

### PNAS: male, female brains wired along different paths

Female brains don't separate the hemisphere much but they do divide front and back more sharply

I have been sure for decades that the biological differences between the male and female brains are significant and are the ultimate reason of the statistical differences in the interests, talents, and achievements of men and women. The evidence is formidable and growing.

Two days ago, PNAS revealed the online pre-publication version of a Pennsylvania-Princeton paper

Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain
by Ingalhalikar and 9 co-authors. The paper was discussed by all major media including the BBC, the Guardian, Fox News (video report where they spin the female specifics in a much more ludicrously positive direction than in the left-wing media), HuffPo, Forbes (on social implications), and many others.

A catchy enough slogan says that the male circuitry is optimized for "perception and coordination" while the female circuitry is optimized for "skills and memory".

Well, the female brain is good at "facilitating communication between analytical and intuitive processing modes" which may be just a euphemism for "it is less able to protect rational reasoning from emotions" (but if you want to spin everything female positively, be my guest: unlike the babe interviewed by Fox News, I don't think that any of these things supports the idea that politics should be done mainly by women but I may be wrong).

What did they do?

Well, they did scans of brains: 428 young male brains and 521 young female brains. The ages of their owners were between 8 and 22 years. The study used the "diffusion-based structural connectome" – they modeled the brains using diffusion tensor imaging. A statistical analysis of the connections was performed for each of the 949 young brains.

The scans made the differences clear (and I have trouble to imagine that those who did similar scans in the past have never noticed; the real novelty is that these authors dared to publish). There are developmental differences that increase with time. During adolescence, the differences become clear and they grow in adulthood. A few words about the character of the differences follow.

In all supratentorial regions (i.e. those above tentorium cerebelli), males had more "cables" laid inside each hemisphere and a higher modularity and transitivity. On the contrary, females had more "cables" in between the two hemispheres and a higher cross-module participation.

The cerebellar connections (which essentially means those in the infratentorial regions), the comparison is reversed.

One needs to know and think a little to figure out why the excess or deficits of certain kinds of connections implies the differences in the abilities that they associate with them. Note that the connections are far from capturing all the differences. Some time ago, we mentioned the fact that the male and female brains are dominated by gray and white matter, respectively. However, this observation may not be as independent from the differences in connections as it looks.

A clear difference between the blue (male) brain and the female (orange) one is that the blue brain is much more sharply separated to the hemispheres. But it ain't the only repeatably demonstrable difference.

Those are significant differences. It's like men grow into Windows PC desktop or laptop computers and women develop to Android tablets. Many things may be done by both, in one way or another, but the differences in the effectiveness etc. are guaranteed to exist. I mentioned the PC and the tablet because I can do certain productive things on the PC only; but it's only the tablet that I sometimes play with in the bed. ;-)

Now, 8 years later, I still feel extremely angry when I remember all the obnoxious whining feminist cranks at Harvard who were giving Larry Summers a hard time for a year – before they were the main ones who made him resign (if I ignore e.g. those arrogant lazy grade-inflating black rappers pretending to be professors) – just because he was ready to consider the possibility that the gender differences in STEM etc. have biological causes. As far as I can say, people who are ignorant – or claim to be ignorant – about the very fact that men and women biologically differ (even outside the sensitive areas) shouldn't work at prestigious universities at all. At Harvard and elsewhere, they not only work there but they're currently in charge of things and they deliberately and constantly harass everyone who is not as uneducated and unreasonable as they are.

One more catchy story on biology that excited me in recent days:

Father: pig, mother: chimp

Darwin's evolution faced some opposition by the believers because it was undignified for the children of God to be related to apes. Do you think that they would find it easier to accept evolution today?

Well, think about it. Eugene McCarthy, a rather serious geneticist, claims that the humans' ultimate ancestors are a male pig and a female chimpanzee who had some fun.

Our hypothesized foreparents. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is more similar to our foremother while Edward Measure resembles the forefather.

Look at the diet we share with our hypothetical forefather, the nice pink hair-free skin that distinguishes us from the apes and monkeys, and the behavior of many people. CommunistSocialistSwine who masks himself as CapitalistImperialistPig has still failed to hide his origin. Pigs' skin is pretty good for human transplants, a fact you might consider surprising or tantalizing. Somewhat unconvincingly for me, the evidence is largely anatomical and not DNA-based. (A factoid: humans have 46 chromosomes in total, in between 38 of pigs and 48 of chimps.)

So I don't even understand why the sexes of the ultimate parents couldn't have been reversed. Wouldn't it be more natural to say that women, who are really free of body hair, inherited this feature from our ultimate female ancestor, a pig, while men are more hairy after our forefather chimp? ;-)

Does this guy believe that the female chimp(s) and male pig(s) produced several or many children? At least one son and one daughter of this kind might have been needed for a further reproduction, right?


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# What is the relation?

Joe is a foodie and an astronaut. He travels from the Earth to the Moon. While in the journey he continues his normal eating routine, he still finds that his weighting machine shows a significant decrease in his weight on the Moon.

Does this imply that Joe has lost a significant mass in the travel? Assume the weighing machine is working correctly.

Try this: All of my problems

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Units: Note that units of length are shown for convenience. Finding the area between the circle and the square: But there is another question in the given problem asking us to find the area between the circle and the square boundaries (this is the green. Area of Part of a Circle Given a circle of radius a, cut out a tab of height b. So the smallest square that can be drawn around the circle will be one whose sides are 20 cm, same as the diameter of the circle. Determine total cost given a rate per square foot, or explore hundreds of other calculators covering topics such as math, finance, fitness, health, and more. #include. Area of Circle. 12 ), fractions ( 10/3) or numbers with $\pi$ ( 25/4 pi ). A page to compute squares Enter a value to be squared Then click OK The square of the number entered is. Diameter of Circle. 2 ∅ one inch circles to square inches = 1. Area of a circle formula. The formula for calculating the area of a circle is pi times radius squared. 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Oval areas need measurements similar to a rectangle. 07 m2 (to 2 decimals) The estimate of 7. Only the cases n=1 and n=2 have been proved optimal. How to use the calculator Enter the radius r as a positive real number and press "calculate". This property is approx 1344 square feet with 3 bedrooms and 2 bathrooms. Calculate the volume of a pyramid. First fold your sheet of square paper in half and then in half again the other way. The area of a circle is determined by the formula: A = π r 2. Square yardage is a common measurement of area, measured in yards, and is used in many fields. Area of circle A = π [1. Solution: Given r = 5cm. pi*r^2=A r=2. The calculator can be used to calculate applications like. The area of a circle is given by Pi*Radius^2 where Pi is a constant approximately equal to 3. Dirt calculator will estimate how many cubic yards of dirt fill you will need for you desired coverage area. This geometry calculator will take one known circle measurement (area, circumference, diameter, or radius) and calculate the other three. 0001154 square miles (mi²) 357. 5 So its about 636172. Area of a Circle = π x (Diameter/2)^2. Square Feet TOTAL = Trestlewood makes no representations or warranties whatsoever relative to the accuracy of this calculator (or any of its other calculators) and accepts no liability or responsibility for results obtained from same. That is to say π (pi is 3. two questions, on the same vein the radius of the red circle is given, and its center point is always at 0,0. 04 square inches. From line 8 I have started the if statement with a conditional to check if the user has given the input as 1, if the user has given the input 1 then the user is asked to input length and breadth of the rectangle to calculate the area. Area of a Circle. The formula for calculating the area of a circle is pi times radius squared. 141592653589793. A 6 inch port 3. asked by WolfBatFox on August 29, 2019. 14 x 62 = 3. So the smallest square that can be drawn around the circle will be one whose sides are 20 cm, same as the diameter of the circle. Number of Circles in a Circle. √ = square root Calculator Use. Enter value and select a conversion from the buttons below and result will be displayed. House plans, calculator, tape measure. Say a room is 20 feet wide by 13 feet long, then 20 x 13 = 260 square feet. 3rd Way to Calculate Circumference of Circle: When You Know Area of Circle. Therefore the area of the largest square that can fit in a circle of radius 6 is 72. By using this website, you agree to our Cookie Policy. Roundness is the measure of how closely the shape of an object approaches that of a mathematically perfect circle. The full code of this analysis is available here: least_squares_circle_v1d. Press the left bracket sign on your calculator, enter 25, press the divide sign (÷) followed by the pi sign (π), then press the right bracket sign followed by the square root sign (√). Bolt Circle Calculator. Area of a Circle. This calculator can find the center and radius of a circle given its equation in standard or general form. Take the square root of the result (Example: 310. Calculate the square of the radius. Multiply the bed's radius (which is half of the distance of the bed's diameter) by itself by 3. In this tutorial we will learn how to calculate area of Square. You can pack as many squares as you like into a circle. Use the pi button on your calculator and give your answer correct to two decimal places. This free Mohr's Circle tool calculates 2D stress states and principle stresses for a material given normal and shear stress. In Euclidean geometry, squaring the circle was a long-standing mathematical puzzle that was proved impossible in the 19th century. Call or Email us Today For a Tour of this home. Try this Drag the orange dots to move and resize the square. Formula used to calculate the area of circumscribed square is: 2 * r 2 where, r is the radius of the circle in which a square is circumscribed by circle. Get the radius of the circle. Take the total and divide by 27 (the amount of cubic feet in a yard). Determining the square inches (also written as in 2) in any two-dimensional area is usually a fairly straightforward process. Other Interesting Articles in C Programming: Password Creation Program. What is the area of a square inscribed in the intersection of given circles?. A common problem in geometry class is to have you calculate the area of a circle based on provided information. Use this square calculator to find the side length, diagonal length, perimeter or area of a geometric square. So, we divide our diameter by 2 and then square it (multiply it by itself) and then multiply by π. Mathway currently only computes linear regressions. It is important to use the "Length A", the long measurement in the box with the Length A label. With a little bit of planning, you can set yourself up to hit every inch of grass without sprinkling your sidewalk, driveway, neighbor's lawn—well, you get the picture. Perfect Square Calculator Enter any Number into this free calculator Our calculator will tell you whether or not any number is a perfect square as well as why that number is a perfect square. Then click Calculate. After the radius has been squared multiply the result by PI. C++ program to calculate the area of the square with and without using function In this example, you will learn about C++ program to calculate the area of square with and without using a function. Student Loan Refinancing Calculator Jamie Young Updated February 26, 2020 Our goal here at Credible is to give you the tools and confidence you need to improve your finances. Example: 303,000/3. Here is a simple tutorial with an example to calculate the square feet of a Circle. 02989 hectares (ha) 0. To measure the circumference of a circle, you need to use "Pi," a mathematical constant discovered by the Greek mathematician Archimedes. Multiply the result by pi (use the button on the calculator) or 3. Generalisations can be made to higher dimensions - this is called. The holes are 0. However, if you are just doing this on your own, pick one. Hence the area of a semi-circle is just the half. the diameter of the inscribed circle is equal to the side of the square. Formulas, explanations, and graphs for each calculation. i)| 0 ≤ i < N }, we want to ﬁnd the circle that “best” (in a leastsquares sense) ﬁts the points. Four versions of a circumference calculator to solve geometric problems. This gives you your square feet figure (ft 2 ). Original Poster 1 point · 4 years ago. Note: To correctly identify the center of the circle we have to place the equation in the standard form. In this C program, we allow the user to enter the radius, and We defined pi as a global variable and assigned value as 3. The radius of the circle, which determines its area, is half the length of the square's diagonal. Use this to figure the Volume of a Square or Rectangular Tank. Set this equal to the circle's diameter and you have the mathematical relationship you need. Be careful! Least squares is sensitive to outliers. The general rule of thumb for a horizontal smoker is that the firebox should be 1/3 the size (volume) of the cooking chamber. Instead of hiring someone to replace the carpet, you decide to do it yourself. This interactive activity explores the representation of fractions, decimals and percentages using either a square or circle divided into equal parts. 5708) times the area of the square. Today we shall write the program to find area of square,rectangle,circle so that. Circumscribed circle of a square is made through the four vertices of a square. Bookmark square centimeter to square micrometer Conversion Calculator - you will probably need it in the future. The formulas for the perimeter P and area A of a circle are given by: P = 2 π r A = π r 2. Let us consider 3 scenarios to calculate the area of a circle. C program to calculate the area and perimeter of a circle, triangle, square and rectangle C program to calculate the area and perimeter of a circle, triangle, square and rectangle. Since the diameter of a circle is twice its radius, d=2r. Use of Radius of Inscribed Circle Calculator Enter the side lengths a, b and c of the triangle as positive real numbers and press "enter". Example: Max is building a house. The radius of the circle, which determines its area, is half the length of the square's diagonal. Try this Drag the orange dots to move and resize the square. Find the equation of a circle in standard form, with a center at C (-3,4) and passing through. Here’s an example of how to find the diameter of a circle if the circle’s area is given: If the area of a circle is 12. To be able to calculate the concrete volume needed for this type of slab your need to know the diameter of the circle and the depth of this slab. Python Program To find Area Of Circle - The area of a circle is number of square units inside the circle. Print the result. Enter one value and choose the number of decimal places. Calculate the area of a sector: A = r² * Θ / 2 = 15² * π/4 / 2 = 88. Type that value into the diagonal of a square calculator to check it yourself!. This means that the diagonal of the largest possible inscribed square is also 8 inches. Oval Areas / Square Footage. 1416) with the square of the radius (r) 2. The calculator below can be used to estimate the maximum number of small circles that fits into an outer larger circle. Or essentially the area of this circle. This is pretty simple. Ellipses are closed curves such as a circle. How to Calculate Area in Square Yards. This Calculator calculates area of Hollow Square from Length & Thickness. PI is not 3. Program to draw reliability graph. 14159… ø = Circle diameter; Diameter of Circle. 26 squares, the area of this circle would be 28. There we need to remember the formulas of each and every shape. Learning how to calculate square footage is easy. The diameter of the circle is equal to the length of one side of the square. Enter Angle and Radius and hit Calculate to re-draw the circle and display all measurements across (Chord) and around (Arc) each section of the circle. We continue to feel. Then, the formula for working out the circumference of the circle is: Circumference of circle = π x Diameter of circle. Trapezoid Calculate the area of a trapezoid. 14159 and R is the radius. If you know the segment height and radius of the circle you can also find the segment area. To find the area of the circle you need its radius. The length of the square is 2 and the width of the square is 2. Free math lessons and math homework help from basic math to algebra, geometry and beyond. The formula for for determining the surface area of a circle is, PIE X Radius Squared. Looking for code to do a least square circle calculation on this data set so diameter and out-of-roundness can be estimated. A center of an inscribed circle is placed in a point of intersection of diagonals. 0057751 square inches. Rectangle - a geometrical figure, any four sided figure with only right angles. Example 3: Circular Beds. The radius of the circle will be supplied by the user. Oval areas need measurements similar to a rectangle. Calculate the volume of a pyramid. Download the Squaring the Circle with the Golden Ratio pdf file or visit The Circle is Squared to explore the steps at your own leisure. The area of the square. Also, it can find equation of a circle given its center and radius. For any circle one can ﬁnd another circle that ﬁts the data better. Calculate the product of the value of PI and the value of the square of the radius. Average acceleration is the object's change in speed for a specific. Draw a freehand circle, then click analyze to see how close you got to a perfect circle. How To Calculate The Area Of A Circle A circle is the round counterpart of a square. The area of a circle is determined by the formula: A = π r 2. Try out different colors and textures in your home with 6"x6" samples. A piece of pie shaped area. entering the credit card number, or if you. It is possible to circumscribe a circle around a quadrangle, if a sum of its opposite angles is equal to 180 deg. There are any number of ways to design and build a BBQ Smoker. Annual Calculator. You can estimate the size by treating the lake as a the closest geometric figure, such as a circle, rectangle or triangle, or you can try to directly count the square footage of the lake by using graph paper on a scaled area map. Perimeter = 4 * a. A "Real World" Example. 785 Keep in mind that 1 ft 2 is 144 in 2. This free calculator estimates the square footage of a property and can account for various common lot shapes. To calculate the area of a circle we use the formula: π x (diameter/2) 2. 6 which is equal to 5. A bolt circle of 4x100 would indicate a 4-lug pattern on a circle with a diameter of 100mm. Circumscribed circle of a square is made through the four vertices of a square. Area of a Circle Calculator. Calculate the area for #2 to the nearest square unit. Re: 5" circle ='s how many sq. 7 cm) 2/ Draw an extra bit on the end that is 1 unit long (e. Calculate the area of a square using our Area Calculator, or try calculating it yourself with the formulas provided. **This Calculator also calculates triangle square inches, the triangle's total Height in feet, total Height in inches, total length in feet and total length in inches. What is the probability to the nearest thousandth that a point inside the square is also inside the circle? The area of the circle is A circle = pr 2, where r is the radius of the circle. two questions, on the same vein the radius of the red circle is given, and its center point is always at 0,0. Consider the circle as being drawn with its centre at the origin and having radius R. Oval Areas / Square Footage. You know circles are round. Have a play with the Least Squares Calculator. There are 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard. You can easily calculate the area of a circle in under a minute. Calculated out this gives an area of 28. 14 = Circumference of circle; Diameter squared x 0. To begin with, remember that pi is a number, written down with the symbol π. It could be a 1 foot by 1 foot square, but then we can use that to actually measure the area of things. The resulting formula is radius = the square root of the area/pi; Once you know the area, multiply it by 2 to get the diameter. To draw a new area click the [Start a New Area] button or press Alt+n. Radius Area Perimeter Chord and Arc Angle of Circle and Arc Calculator, Circle Inscribed in a Triangle Calculator, Circle Circumscribing a Triangle Calculator. Re: acres in a circle The formula for the area of a circle is: Area = Pi * radius² Pi * (900/2)² = 636172. If they want exact you must leave it in terms of pi. English Español Português 中文 (简体) עברית العربية. You can measure the area of a space in square meters in a few simple steps. Three circles mutually tangent to each other. A circle is the set of all points on a plane with the same distance (the radius) to a certain point, which is called center. 5” = 2,754 (Divide this number by 144) 2,754/144 = 19. Area of Part of a Circle Given a circle of radius a, cut out a tab of height b. Whether you’re selling your home or looking to buy, one concept that’s crucial to understand is how to calculate square feet. This formula will calculate the area of a circle given its radius. Re: acres in a circle The formula for the area of a circle is: Area = Pi * radius² Pi * (900/2)² = 636172. Use this circle calculator to find the area, circumference, radius or diameter of a circle. Triangle, equilateral. The formula for the area of a circle is pi * r 2 (where r is the radius). The radius is about 6 centimeters, so the diameter is about 12 centimeters. Our calculator can also convert the result to different units. , in2 & in 2 **This Calculator also calculates square feet, total height in feet, total height in inches, total length in feet and total length in inches. Second program is to finds the area and circumference of a circle, fourth and fifth program is to finds the area & perimeter of a rectangle and square. The technique of completing the square is used to turn a quadratic into the sum of a squared binomial and a number: ( x – a) 2 + b. All of our sod is sold by the square foot (sq. A few foods with a name containing, like or similar to FULL CIRCLE, WHEAT SQUARES, UPC: 036800062597: FULL CIRCLE, ROTINI WHOLE WHEAT MACARONI PRODUCT, UPC: 036800049789 weigh(s) 78. Diameter in Feet. Be careful! Least squares is sensitive to outliers. Multiply the bed's radius (which is half of the distance of the bed's diameter) by itself by 3. Therefore, the area depends only on the size of r. * Whole number, decimal or fraction ie: 6, 5. To be able to calculate the concrete volume needed for this type of slab your need to know the diameter of the circle and the depth of this slab. It assumes 4 bolts equally spaced. The surface area of a circle is the total space defined within boundaries of a circle. 6 which is equal to 5. Units: Note that units of length are shown for convenience. Circle in a Square. If you look at the last section of my code entitled "Least Squares Fitting", that's what I'm attempting to do (I think. The new equation is : x 2 + y 2 = 4. Now I have to extend the Shape class with Circle and Rectangle classes, first. #N#Enter a New circle 1-meter diameter Amount to Convert From. Then, I have to extend Rectangle with Square and Triangle classes. BookMark Us It may come. Find the equation of a circle in standard form, with a center at C (-3,4) and passing through. Or, if you are a student interested in learning more about circles, circumference, radius and their relation, then Khan Academy's this page is useful. Draw a square centimeter. Calculate the volume of a pyramid. Then, the formula for working out the circumference of the circle is: Circumference of circle = π x Diameter of circle. Geometry calculator for solving the area of a square Math Geometry Physics Force Fluid Mechanics Finance Loan Calculator. Minimum solutions:. Did you know you can make a circle from a square by folding and making a couple of tiny cuts? Once you’ve got the hang of the process try it again using bigger and smaller squares. This is pretty simple. They do not affect the calculations. Use a ruler or similar tool to measure the radius of the circle. No new notifications. Squaring the circle is a problem proposed by ancient geometers. Works both in metric and imperial units. So, first you have to import the util package of Java so that you can use the Scanner class in this program which will help programmers to fetch input from users. Generalisations can be made to higher dimensions - this is called. Draw a circle with a square, as large as possible, inside the circle. Enter an address or zoom into the map then click on the starting point of your shape. The rectagle is 5 units by 12 units so its area is 5 12 = 60 square units. (∅ 1mm) and square millimeters (mm2, sq mm) units in reverse from square millimeters into ∅ one millimeter circles. However, rather than printing the results in a function, it is good practice to return the results to the calling function. The area of some circle is known and equals 15. Estimate the diameter of a circle when its radius is known. To measure the circumference accurately, wrap the tape measure around your waist, like a belt, at your natural waistline, located above the belly button and below the rib cage. The Radius is the distance from the center of the circle to the circumference. Area of a sector. The following Java program to print the area of a circle has been written in five simple different ways, static method, using constructor, Interface, inheritance with sample outputs for each program. 25 watts I can calculate the maximum worst case voltage that could appear across it, before damage could occur. We'll Help. Then, the formula for working out the circumference of the circle is: Circumference of circle = π x Diameter of circle. Area enclosed (A) = a² Area (A I) of circle inscribed in square with side a: Area (A C) of circumscribed circle about square with side a: About Square Calculator tool. Next draw in one diagonal of the square so the square is cut into 2 right triangles. Hence AB is a diagonal of the circle and thus its length of is 60 inches and the lengths of BC and CA are equal. The radius can be any measurement of length. The largest possible circle is to be cut from a 12-foot square board. Free math lessons and math homework help from basic math to algebra, geometry and beyond. One turn around the circle = 2 PI, one fourth of that is pi/2. Three circles mutually tangent to each other. Imagine an 'Idly' plate, the cooking utensil to make the South Indian food Idly, which is the perfect example for this scenario. Lines 75 & 98: Because the area of a circle with an integer radius can be a real number, getArea() should return a double, not an int. The calculator is generic and any kind of units can be used - as long as the same units are used for all values. Therefore the area of the largest square that can fit in a circle of radius 6 is 72. Circle Port Diameter in Inches. Remember this tool should be used only to. The area of a circle is given by Pi*Radius^2 where Pi is a constant approximately equal to 3. Notice that the sides of the square are twice as long as the radius of the circle. measure you can get it pretty quickly and easily using either the 5 Bolt Circle measuring method or the Even. 63 Use a calculator. The formulae for converting price and time to degrees of a circle, and for finding all the future prices and times when a pivot high or pivot low will square on the Square of Nine, and the method for constructing Square of Nine Roadmap charts from a plain price chart are a solid foundation for making the Square of Nine your own without ever. 54 corresponds to 3. This on the web one-way conversion tool converts surface area units from ∅ 1-inch circles ( ∅ 1 in ) into square inches ( in 2 , sq in ) instantly online. If you need to find the area of an Ellipse then our Ellipse area calculator can help. Specific circle 1-meter diameter to square meter Conversion Results. 44: units 2: Change Equation Click on an equation to solve Circle Equations. 820947918 should be displayed which is 2. Given any one variable A, C, r or d of a circle you can calculate the other three unknowns. Interestingly enough, the Pyramid of Giza represents a Square Pyramid. An area is the size of a two-dimensional surface. For centroid, moments of inertia, polar moments of inertia, and radius of gyration, click on the following shapes: Circular Section: Quarter Circle. Calculator techniques for problems related to circles and triangles are more on algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. California Phone: Office - (951) 271-3950 Toll free - (800) 862-6159 Fax - (951) 271-3940 Address: 1020 Railroad St. 1415927 = 19. To find the area of a circle, the square of the radius is multiplied by pi (π). 1 circle 1-inch diameter ( ∅ 1 in ) = 0. Exercise 2: The area of a circle is 35 m² (square meters). (∅ 1mm) and square millimeters (mm2, sq mm) units in reverse from square millimeters into ∅ one millimeter circles. Memorization of formulas is what is needed. Area enclosed (A) = a² Area (A I) of circle inscribed in square with side a: Area (A C) of circumscribed circle about square with side a: About Square Calculator tool. To visualize how the area of a circle is derived, think about how a circle can be made. Learn more about pi, or explore hundreds of other calculators addressing finance, math, fitness, health, and more. the number of small pipes that fits into a large pipe or tube; the number of wires possible in a conduit; the number of fibers that fits in a connector; and similar. The area of the square. Or, if you are a student interested in learning more about circles, circumference, radius and their relation, then Khan Academy's this page is useful. Harry drew lines from the $12$ to the $3$, from the $3$ to the $6$, from the $6$ to the $9$, and then back from the $9$ to the $12$. Converts square feet to cubic yards 1 cubic yard will cover the following amount of square feet at the given depth. (They are flat, or two-dimensional. The generalization to spheres is called a sphere packing. 07385 acres (ac) 0. So the largest square is 7. Perimeter = 4 * a. An online calculator to calculate the area A and perimeter P of a circle given its radius r. Many times when there is an existing pole in place that needs to be replaced it may not be easy to measure accurately corner to corner with the pole in the way. Oval areas need measurements similar to a rectangle. In this C program, we allow the user to enter the radius, and We defined pi as a global variable and assigned value as 3. If a person sends you: $Your Square fees would be:$ And you would receive: $Enter your Square fee rate below: % +$ USD: Select below if you are swiping or manually entering the credit card number, or if you have a Square Online Store. a = area: r = radius: c =. You might find yourself needing the area of a room or other space in square meters for a flooring, renovation, or landscaping project. Area and Perimeter of a Ellipse Shape Calculator Calculate Area and Perimeter of an Ellipse Shape. If you need to find the area of an Ellipse then our Ellipse area calculator can help. Another way to calculate a square root is by using the POWER function. Let the side of the square be x cm. 1415927 = 19. And so when we think about area, we know that the area of a circle, the area of a circle is equal to pi times the radius of the circle. The center of the part and center of rotation are offset. 2 * pi * radius. The technique of completing the square is used to turn a quadratic into the sum of a squared binomial and a number: ( x – a) 2 + b. If the perimeter of the semi-circle is needed, add together the lengths of one-half of the circumference + diameter. If you think about the floor of your bedroom, the area would be the maximum amount of floor you could throw your stuff on before you couldn't see any floor remaining. A circle can be converted into a square by drawing 4 lines parallel to the edges until they connect. 179049311 = 0. The measure of angle EXT is 44 degrees. Make sure to check out the equation of a circle calculator, too!. shell scripting for area of square,rectangle,circle Posted on June 5, 2013 by Anuroop D In our childhood many of us used to hate mathematics where we need to calculate the areas of the different shapes. Each side of this square measures one centimeter, so it’s a square centimeter. Three circles mutually tangent to each other. Circle in a Square Counseling, Counselor, Lacey, WA, 98503, (253) 655-1048, Many times in our lives we believe that overcoming obstacles is like attempting the impossible. [crayon-5eb239f71ec08208630591/] and [crayon-5eb239f71ec0b151440462/] In the above program. For most home improvement projects, knowing how to calculate square footage is an important skill. Squaring the square is the problem of tiling an integral square using only other integral squares. After all, there’s a huge difference between a home that’s 400 square feet (tiny) and one that’s 4,000 (McMansion), and not just in terms of how much space you’ve got to stretch your legs. A circle inscribed in a triangle. 8 x Width x Length. A circle can be converted into a square by drawing 4 lines parallel to the edges until they connect. This becomes 100 cm 2 - 78. Area is the size of a surface. Then round up your number to the nearest whole number, 152. 02989 hectares (ha) 0. The circumference of a circle is the measured total length around a circle, which when measured in degrees is equal to 360°. The symbol ^2 means to square the item inside the parentheses, in this case the radius. A Map Based Area Calculator For Measuring The Square Footage of Lawns For Sod Installation or Fertilizer Rates. A great feature would be if you could only view a 1/4 of the circle if it's a circle or 1/2 if it's an oval as when I'm building circles with a diameter of over 500 I have to zoom in all the way on the scale factor, and then zoom in on the web page just to see the pattern. Program to read the numbers, round them off to the nearest integers and print out the. Student Loan Refinancing Calculator Jamie Young Updated February 26, 2020 Our goal here at Credible is to give you the tools and confidence you need to improve your finances. Calculate radius ( r ) of a circle inscribed in a square if you know side Radius of a circle inscribed in a square - Calculator Online Home List of all formulas of the site. Least Squares Fitting Method with a Circle. A plane figure with four straight sides and four right angles, especially one with equal adjacent sides, in contrast to a square with hollow at some thickness. Let the rows of squares, with length of sides a, be parallel to the X axis. #N#Enter a New circle 1-meter diameter Amount to Convert From. In this C program, we allow the user to enter the radius, and We defined pi as a global variable and assigned value as 3. the overlap area can have strange, crazy shapes. 27431 4 inch port 3. The button must be pressed after that for our surface area calculator to work. Java online tutorial. Try this Drag the orange dots to move and resize the square. Also, see how it works and compare our calculator to other plant calculators. Notice that the square terms have matching coefficients (A). Create two methods to calculate the area and perimeter. How does this formula work?. Graph a Circle - powered by WebMath. Today we shall write the program to find area of square,rectangle,circle so that. The full code of this analysis is available here: least_squares_circle_v1d. Because dies are square (or rectangular I should say), and the wafer is a circle, not all of the area of the wafer is used for dies. Looking at the picture, you should be able to see that this diagonal of the square is the same as the diameter of the circle. 2 * pi * radius. Because there has been a little more interest in the first blanket I made from this pattern, (and the fact that I was so happy with how it turned out), I thought it would be a great excuse to attempt a written pattern/tutorial to share!. Determine the radius of the circle. This is easy to calculate the surface area of a circle when either radius, diameter, or circumference is known. If you were new to java or at the beginning stage then, Check – 500+ simple Java programs for beginners. Squares in Circles. This property is approx 1344 square feet with 3 bedrooms and 2 bathrooms. Squaring the Big Circle Tutorial This is going to be my first attempt at writing up one of my own designs. 14159 X (2 X 2) = 12. This guide will explain how to measure square footage and outline the square footage formula. Pack n squares in the smallest possible circle. This gives you your square feet figure (ft 2). Radius and diameter refer to the original circle, which was bisected through its center. 14159 = 113. 5 cubic yards Conversion Chart – Square Feet to Cubic Yards. Calculate the area of a square using our Area Calculator, or try calculating it yourself with the formulas provided. √ = square root Calculator Use. Cubic ft x 7. The new equation is : x 2 + y 2 = 4. Let us consider 3 scenarios to calculate the area of a circle. (b) Graph the circle. The calculations are done "live": It is interesting to compare the area of a circle to a square: A circle has about 80% of the area of a similar-width square. A page to compute squares Enter a value to be squared Then click OK The square of the number entered is. In this video, it is shown how to calculate the area of a circle where the diameter is given. If you doubt this statement, draw a large circle on a piece of paper, then draw a square with side length 10^(-18)m inside it, repeat. Follow along to learn how to calculate yourself, or simply use the calculator above. Use the formula for the area of a circle to calculate the exact area of the circle above, in terms of π. Make sure to check out the equation of a circle calculator, too!. Ellipses are closed curves such as a circle. To understand how to calculate square footage we must first begin with the definition of area. What is the area of a circle with a radius of 30 inches (diameter of 60 inches)? Use this easy and mobile-friendly calculator to compute the area of a circle given its radius. Press the left bracket sign on your calculator, enter 25, press the divide sign (÷) followed by the pi sign (π), then press the right bracket sign followed by the square root sign (√). Calculate the area of a circle where the circumference of the circle and sides of the square are tangential at 4 points. Radius of the circle = Diameter ÷ 2 = 12 ÷ 2 = 6' Now area of the circle " A" = pi x radius x radius = 3.


text:
This part of the workshop is dependant on set-up and preparation done previously here.

First, we load KrigR:

library(KrigR)

Downloads and data processing with KrigR are staged and executed with the download_ERA()function.

download_ERA() is a very versatile function and I will show you it’s capabilities throughout this material.

We will start with a simple calls to KrigR and subsequently make them more sophisticated during this workshop.

Let’s start with a very basic call to download_ERA().

For this part of the workshop, we download air temperature for my birth month (January 1995) using the extent of our target region.

See the code chunk below for explanations on each function argument. If you want to know about the defaults for any argument in download_ERA() simply run ?download_ERA(). Doing so should make it obvious why we specify the function as we do below.

Notice that the downloading of ERA-family reanalysis data may take a short while to start as the download request gets queued with the CDS of the ECMWF before it is executed.

FirstDL <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature", # the variable we want to obtain data for
DataSet = "era5-land", # the data set we want to obtain data from
DateStart = "1995-01-01", # the starting date of our time-window
DateStop = "1995-01-31", # the final date of our time-window
Extent = Extent_ext, # the spatial preference we are after
API_User = API_User, # your API User Number
API_Key = API_Key # your API User Key
)

## download_ERA() is starting. Depending on your specifications, this can take a significant time.

## User 39340 for cds service added successfully in keychain

## Staging 1 download(s).

## 0001_FirstDL.nc download queried

## Requesting data to the cds service with username 39340

## - staging data transfer at url endpoint or request id:

##   d19d450c-2a1a-4974-9da4-c022a4db654f

## - timeout set to 10.0 hours

## - polling server for a data transfer \ polling server for a data transfer | polling
## server for a data transfer / polling server for a data transfer - polling server for a
## data transfer \ polling server for a data transfer | polling server for a data transfer /
## polling server for a data transfer - polling server for a data transfer \ polling server
## for a data transfer | polling server for a data transfer / polling server for a data
## transfer - polling server for a data transfer \ polling server for a data transfer |
## polling server for a data transfer / polling server for a data transfer - polling server
## for a data transfer \ polling server for a data transfer | polling server for a data
## transfer / polling server for a data transfer - polling server for a data transfer \
## polling server for a data transfer | polling server for a data transfer / polling server
## for a data transfer - polling server for a data transfer

##
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|================================================================================| 100%

## - moved temporary file to -> C:/Users/erike/Documents/Website/content/courses/krigr/Data/0001_FirstDL.nc
## - request purged from queue!
## Checking for known data issues.
## Aggregating to temporal resolution of choice

As you can see the download_ERA() function updates you on what it is currently working on at each major step. I implemented this to make sure people don’t get too anxious staring at an empty console in R. If this feature is not appealing to you, you can turn this progress tracking off by setting verbose = FALSE in the function call to download_ERA().

For the rest of this workshop, I suppress messages from download_ERA() via other means so that when you execute, you get progress tracking.

I will make exceptions to this rule when there are special things I want to demonstrate.

Now, let’s look at the raster that was produced:

FirstDL

## class      : RasterStack
## dimensions : 34, 54, 1836, 1  (nrow, ncol, ncell, nlayers)
## resolution : 0.09999999, 0.09999998  (x, y)
## extent     : 9.72, 15.12, 49.74, 53.14  (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)
## crs        : +proj=longlat +datum=WGS84 +no_defs
## names      :       X1
## min values : 268.8695
## max values : 274.6665

One layer (i.e., one month) worth of data. That seems to have worked. If you are keen-eyed, you will notice that the extent on this object does not align with the extent we supplied with Extent_ext. The reason? To download the data, we need to snap to the nearest full cell in the data set from which we query our downloads. KrigR always ends up widening the extent to ensure all the data you desire will be downloaded.

Finally, let’s visualise our downloaded data with one of our user-defined plotting functions:

Plot_Raw(FirstDL, Dates = "01-1995")

That is all there is to downloading ERA5(-Land) data with KrigR. You can already see how, even at the relatively course resolution of ERA5-Land, the mountain ridges along the German-Czech border are showing up. This will become a lot clearer of a pattern once we downscale our data.

download_ERA() provides you with a lot more functionality than just access to the ERA5(-Land) data sets.

With download_ERA(), you can also carry out processing of the downloaded data. Data processing with download_ERA() includes:

1. Spatial Limitation to cut down on the data that is stored on your end.
2. Temporal Aggregation to establish data at the temporal resolution you desire.

Spatial Limitation

Let’s start with spatial limitation. As discussed previously, download_ERA() can handle a variety of inputs describing spatial preferences.

KrigR is capable of learning about your spatial preferences in three ways:

1. As an extent input (a rectangular box).
2. As a SpatialPolygons input (a polygon or set of polygons).
3. As a set of locations stored in a data.frame.

These spatial preferences are registered in KrigR functions using the Extent argument.

You might now ask yourself: How does KrigR achieve spatial limitation of the data? Couldn’t we just simply download only the data we are interested in?

The ECMWF CDS gives us tremendous capability of retrieving only the data we want. However, the CDS only recognises rectangular boxes (i.e., extents) for spatial limitation. Consequently, we always have to download data corresponding to a rectangular box in space. When informing KrigR of your spatial preferences using a data.frame or SpatialPolygons, download_ERA() automatically (1) identifies the smallest extent required by your input, (2) downloads data corresponding to this extent, and (3) masks our any data not queried by you.

Using KrigR’s spatial limitation features ensures faster computation and smaller file sizes (depending on file type).

In the following, I demonstrate how to use the Extent argument in download_ERA().

Shape (SpatialPolygons)

Let me show you how SpatialPolygons show up in our data with download_ERA(). Remember that these SpatialPolygons originate here. First, we query our download as follows:

SpatialPolygons_DL <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-31",
Extent = Shape_shp, # we simply switch the Extent Argument
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "SpatialPolygons_DL",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)
Plot_Raw(SpatialPolygons_DL, Dates = "01-1995", Shp = Shape_shp)

You will find that the data retained with the spatial limitation in download_ERA() contains all raster cells of which even a fraction falls within the bounds of the SpatialPolygons you supplied. This is different from standard raster masking through which only cells whose centroids fall within the SpatialPolygons are retained.

raster masking in KrigR always ensures that the entire area of your spatial preferences are retained.

Points (data.frame)

Now we move on to point-locations. Often times, we are researching very specific sets of coordinates, rather than entire regions. download_ERA() is capable of limiting data to only small areas (of a size of your choosing) around your point-locations. For our purposes here, we make use of a set of mountain-top coordinates throughout our study region. Remember that these coordinates (stored in a data.frame) originate here.

This time around, we need to tell download_ERA() about not just the Extent, but also specify how much of a buffer (Buffer in $°$) to retain data for around each individual (ID) location.

The data.frame input to the Extent must contain a column called Lat and a column called Lon:

In addition, one must also specify:

1. A Buffer in $°$ to be drawn around each location.
2. The name of the ID column in your data.frame which indexes each individual location.

Our development goals include support for a broader range of point-location specifications.

points_DL <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-31",
Extent = Mountains_df, # our data.frame with Lat and Lon columns
Buffer = 0.5, # a half-degree buffer
ID = "Mountain", # the ID column in our data.frame
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "points_DL",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)
Plot_Raw(points_DL, Dates = "01-1995") +
geom_point(aes(x = Lon, y = Lat), data = data.frame(Mountains_sp),
colour = "green", size = 10, pch = 14)

Above you can see how the mountain tops we are interested in lie exactly at the centre of the retained data. As we will see later, such spatial limitation greatly reduces computation cost of statistical downscaling procedures.

Temporal Aggregation

So far, we have downloaded a single layer of data (i.e., one monthly average layer) from the CDS. However, ERA5(-Land) products come at hourly temporal resolutions from which we can generate climate data at almost any temporal resolution we may require. This is what temporal aggregation in download_ERA() is for.

With temporal aggregation in download_ERA() you can achieve almost any temporal resolution and aggregate metric you may desire.

Temporal aggregation with download_ERA() uses the arguments:

• TResolution and TStep to achieve desired temporal resolutions
• FUN to calculate desired aggregate metrics

Temporal Resolution (TResolution and TStep)

Let’s start by querying data at non-CDS temporal resolutions.

The download_ERA() function in the KrigR package accepts the following arguments which you can use to control the temporal resolution of your climate data:

• TResolution controls the time-line that TStep indexes. You can specify anything from the following: 'hour', 'day', 'month', or 'year'. The default is 'month'.
• TStep controls how many time-steps to aggregate into one layer of data each. Aggregation is done via taking the mean per cell in each raster comprising time steps that go into the final, aggregated time-step. The default is 1.

For now, let’s download hourly data from the CDS (this achieved by specifying a TResolution of "hour" or "day") and aggregate these to 1-day intervals. To make the result easier to visualise, we focus only on the first four days of January 1995:

TimeSeries <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-04",
TResolution = "day", # aggregate to days
TStep = 1, # aggregate to 1 day each
Extent = Shape_shp,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "TimeSeries",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)
Plot_Raw(TimeSeries, Dates = c("01-1995", "02-1995",
"03-1995", "04-1995"),
Shp = Shape_shp)

Looks like a cold front rolled over my home area at the beginning of 1995.

KrigR automatically identifies which data set to download from given your temporal aggregation specification.

As soon as TResolution is set to 'month' or 'year', the package automatically downloads monthly mean data from the CDS. We do this to make the temporal aggregation calculation more light-weight on your computing units and to make downloads less heavy.

Let’s run through a few examples to make clear how desired temporal resolution of data can be achieved using the KrigR package:

What We Want TResolution TStep
Hourly intervals hour 1
6-hour intervals hour 6
Half-day intervals hour 12
Daily intervals day 1
3-day intervals day 3
Weekly intervals day 7
Monthly aggregates month 1
4-month intervals month 4
Annual intervals year 1
10-year intervals year 10

Specifying TResolution of 'month' will result in the download of full month aggregates for every month included in your time series.

For example, DateStart = "2000-01-20", DateStop = "2000-02-20" with TResolution = 'month', and TStep = 1 does not result in the mean aggregate for the month between the 20/01/200 and the 20/02/2000, but does result in the monthly aggregates for January and February 2000. If you desire the former, you would need to specify DateStart = "2000-01-20", DateStop = "2000-02-20" with TResolution = 'day', and TStep = 32 (the number of days between the two dates).

Aggregate Metrics (FUN)

Aggregate metrics can be particularly useful for certain study settings when climate variability or exposure to extreme events are sought after.

The FUN argument in download_ERA() controls which values to calculate for the temporal aggregates, e.g.: 'min', 'max', or 'mean' (default).

Any function which returns a single value when fed a vector of values is supported.

Let’s say we are interested in the variability of temperature across our study region in daily intervals. Again, we shorten our time-series to just four days:

TimeSeriesSD <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-04",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
FUN = sd, # query standard deviation
Extent = Shape_shp,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "TimeSeriesSD",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)
Plot_Raw(TimeSeriesSD, Dates = c("01-1995", "02-1995",
"03-1995", "04-1995"),
Shp = Shape_shp)

Seems like the temperatures fluctuated most on the third and fourth of January, but the area of temperature fluctuations changed location between those two days.

You should now be able to query data for any location you study and achieve temporal resolutions and aggregate metrics which your study requires.

Dynamical Data Uncertainty

With climate reanalyses, you also gain access to uncertainty flags of the data stored in the reanalysis product. For the ERA5-family of products, this uncertainty can be obtained by assessing the standard deviation of the 10 ensemble members which make up the underlying ERA5 model exercise.

With download_ERA() you can obtain this information as follows:

SpatialPolygonsEns_DL <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5",
Type = "ensemble_members",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-02",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
FUN = sd,
Extent = Shape_shp,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "SpatialPolygonsEns_DL",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)
Plot_Raw(SpatialPolygonsEns, Dates = c("01-1995", "02-1995"),
Shp = Shape_shp, COL = rev(viridis(100)))

As you can see here, there is substantial disagreement between the ensemble members of daily average temperatures across our study region. This uncertainty among ensemble members is greatest at high temporal resolution and becomes negligible at coarse temporal resolution. We document this phenomenon in this publication (Figure 1).

Now that we know how to use spatial limitation and temporal aggregation with download_ERA() it is time to generate the data products we will use for the rest of this workshop material.

Climate Data

To streamline this workshop material, I will focus on just three short-time series of data with different spatial limitations. I visualise them all side-by-side further down.

extent Data

Extent_Raw <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-04",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
Extent = Extent_ext,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "ExtentRaw",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)

SpatialPolygons Data

SpatialPolygons_Raw <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-03",
DateStop = "1995-01-03",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
Extent = Shape_shp,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "SpatialPolygonsRaw",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)

Point(data.frame) Data

Points_Raw <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5-land",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-4",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
Extent = Mountains_df,
Buffer = 0.5,
ID = "Mountain",
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "PointsRaw",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)

Now let’s visualise these data for a better understanding of what they contain:

Extent_gg <- Plot_Raw(Extent_Raw[[1]], Dates = "Extent")
SP_gg <- Plot_Raw(SpatialPolygons_Raw[[1]], Dates = "SpatialPolygons")
Points_gg <- Plot_Raw(Points_Raw[[1]], Dates = "SpatialPolygons")
plot_grid(Extent_gg, SP_gg, Points_gg, ncol = 3)

Dynamical Data Uncertainty

For an aggregate understanding of data uncertainty, we also obtain dynamical uncertainty for our target region and time frame. For simplicity, we do so only for the SpatialPolygons specification.

SpatialPolygonsEns <- download_ERA(
Variable = "2m_temperature",
DataSet = "era5",
Type = "ensemble_members",
DateStart = "1995-01-01",
DateStop = "1995-01-04",
TResolution = "day",
TStep = 1,
FUN = sd,
Extent = Shape_shp,
Dir = Dir.Data,
FileName = "SpatialPolygonsEns",
API_User = API_User,
API_Key = API_Key
)

Plot_Raw(SpatialPolygonsEns, Dates = c("01-1995", "02-1995",
"03-1995", "04-1995"),
Shp = Shape_shp, COL = rev(viridis(100)))

We will see how these uncertainties stack up against other sources of uncertainty when we arrive at aggregate uncertainty of our final product.

Considerations for download_ERA()

download_ERA() is a complex function with many things happening under the hood. To make sure you have the best experience with this interface to the ERA5(-Land) products through R, I have compiled a few bits of good-to-know information about the workings of download_ERA().

Effeciency

Download speeds with download_ERA() are largely tied to CDS queue time, but there are some things worth considering when querying downloads of time-series data.

The download_ERA() function automatically breaks down download requests into monthly intervals thus circumventing the danger of running into making a download request that is too big for the CDS.

For example, DateStart = "2000-01-20", DateStop = "2000-02-20" with TResolution = 'day', and TStep = 8 will lead to two download requests to the CDS: (1) hourly data in the range 20/01/2000 00:00 to 31/01/2000 23:00, and (2) hourly data in the range 01/02/2000 00:00 to 20/02/2000 23:00. These data sets are subsequently fused in R, aggregated to daily aggregates, and finally, aggregated to four big aggregates.
This gives you a lot of flexibility, but always keep in mind that third-party data sets might not account for leap-years so make sure the dates of third-party data (should you chose to use some) lines up with the ones as specified by your calls to the functions of the KrigR package.

SingularDL

ECMWF CDS downloads come with a hard limit of 100,000 layers worth of data. This corresponds to more than 1 month worth of data. As a matter of fact, even ar hourly time-scales, you could theoretically download ~11 years worth of data without hitting this limit. In this particular case, download_ERA() stages, by default, 132 individual downloads (1 per month) when the CDS would be just fine accepting the download request for all the data in one download call.

Is there any way to bypass the monthly downloads in download_ERA()? Yes, there is. With the SingularDL argument.

Setting SingularDL = TRUE in download_ERA() bypasses the automatic month-wise download staging. A pre-staging check breaks the operation if you query more than the CDS hard limit on data.

Cores

Continuing on from the previous point, let’s consider you want to obtain more than 100,000 layers worth of data for your analysis and thus can’t make use of the SingularDL argument. By default download_ERA() stages downloads sequentially. Most modern PCs come with multiple cores each of which could theoretically stage it’s own download in parallel. Couldn’t we make use of this for more efficient download staging? Yes, we can with the Cores argument.

Using the Cores argument in download_ERA() you can specify how many downloads to stage in parallel rather than sequentially.

Disk Space

KrigR uses NETCDF (.nc) files as they represent the standard in climate science. NETCDF file size is not connected to data content in the raster but number of cells. Other formats, such as GeoTiff (.tif) do however scale in file size with non-NA cell number in the saved rasters.

Our development goals include giving the user control over the file type as which KrigR-derived products are saved.

For example, the file size of the above FirstDL raster is 7kb while the SpatialPolygons and data.frame driven data is saved as GeoTiffs of 4kb and 3kb, respectively.

If you need to optimise storage space, particularly when using spatial limitation with KrigR, I can thus recommend re-saving KrigR outputs as GeoTiffs.

Cummulative Variables (PrecipFix)

Some variables in the ERA5(-Land) data sets are stored as cumulative records for pre-set time-windows, but temporal aggregation in download-ERA() cannot handle such data.

Consequently, cumulative records need to be transformed into single-time-step records with respect to their base temporal resolution and cumulative aggregation interval like so:

To make cumulatively stored variables compatible with temporal aggregation in download_ERA() simple toggle PrecipFix = TRUE in the function call.

To identify which variables are stored cumulatively, we recommend searching for variables listed as “This variable is accumulated from the beginning of the forecast time to the end of the forecast step.” on the data set documentation page (e.g., ERA5-Land).

Our development goals include an error check for specification of PrecipFix = TRUE on non-cumulatively stored variables.

Stability

download_ERA() requires a stable connection to the ECWMF CDS. Sometimes, however, a connection may drop or the CDS queue is so long that our downloads just fail. To mitigate the annoyance caused by these issues, I have implemented to extra arguments to the download_ERA() function call:

TimeOut

TimeOut is a numeric argument which specifies how many seconds to wait for the CDS to return the queried data. The default equates to 10 hours.

TryDown

TryDown is a numeric argument which specifies how often to retry a download before giving up and moving on or stopping the execution of download_ERA(). The default is 10.

Session Info

sessionInfo()

## R version 4.0.5 (2021-03-31)
## Platform: x86_64-w64-mingw32/x64 (64-bit)
## Running under: Windows 10 x64 (build 19043)
##
## Matrix products: default
##
## locale:
## [1] LC_COLLATE=English_United Kingdom.1252  LC_CTYPE=English_United Kingdom.1252
## [3] LC_MONETARY=English_United Kingdom.1252 LC_NUMERIC=C
## [5] LC_TIME=English_United Kingdom.1252
##
## attached base packages:
## [1] parallel  stats     graphics  grDevices utils     datasets  methods   base
##
## other attached packages:
##  [1] mapview_2.10.2          rnaturalearthdata_0.1.0 rnaturalearth_0.1.0
##  [4] gimms_1.2.0             ggmap_3.0.0             cowplot_1.1.1
##  [7] viridis_0.6.0           viridisLite_0.4.0       ggplot2_3.3.6
## [10] tidyr_1.1.3             KrigR_0.1.2             httr_1.4.2
## [13] stars_0.5-3             abind_1.4-5             fasterize_1.0.3
## [16] sf_1.0-0                lubridate_1.7.10        automap_1.0-14
## [19] doSNOW_1.0.19           snow_0.4-3              doParallel_1.0.16
## [22] iterators_1.0.13        foreach_1.5.1           rgdal_1.5-23
## [25] raster_3.4-13           sp_1.4-5                stringr_1.4.0
## [28] keyring_1.2.0           ecmwfr_1.3.0            ncdf4_1.17
##
## loaded via a namespace (and not attached):
##  [1] bitops_1.0-7             satellite_1.0.2          xts_0.12.1
##  [4] webshot_0.5.2            tools_4.0.5              bslib_0.2.4
##  [7] utf8_1.2.1               R6_2.5.0                 zyp_0.10-1.1
## [10] KernSmooth_2.23-18       DBI_1.1.1                colorspace_2.0-0
## [13] withr_2.4.2              tidyselect_1.1.0         gridExtra_2.3
## [16] leaflet_2.0.4.1          curl_4.3.2               compiler_4.0.5
## [19] leafem_0.1.3             gstat_2.0-7              labeling_0.4.2
## [22] bookdown_0.22            sass_0.3.1               scales_1.1.1
## [25] classInt_0.4-3           proxy_0.4-25             digest_0.6.27
## [28] rmarkdown_2.7            base64enc_0.1-3          jpeg_0.1-8.1
## [31] pkgconfig_2.0.3          htmltools_0.5.1.1        highr_0.9
## [34] fastmap_1.1.0            htmlwidgets_1.5.3        rlang_0.4.11
## [37] FNN_1.1.3                farver_2.1.0             jquerylib_0.1.4
## [40] generics_0.1.0           zoo_1.8-9                jsonlite_1.7.2
## [43] crosstalk_1.1.1          dplyr_1.0.5              magrittr_2.0.1
## [46] Rcpp_1.0.7               munsell_0.5.0            fansi_0.4.2
## [49] lifecycle_1.0.0          stringi_1.5.3            yaml_2.2.1
## [52] plyr_1.8.6               grid_4.0.5               crayon_1.4.1
## [55] lattice_0.20-41          knitr_1.33               pillar_1.6.0
## [58] boot_1.3-27              rjson_0.2.20             spacetime_1.2-4
## [61] stats4_4.0.5             codetools_0.2-18         glue_1.4.2
## [64] evaluate_0.14            blogdown_1.3             vctrs_0.3.7


text:
# Cutting a Solid Torus with $n$ Planes

Question: How many pieces a solid torus be cut into with three (affine) planar cuts?

A google search will quickly reveal that the answer is thirteen, as can be read about here. The picture below displays this solution. However, although I can look at the diagram of the cuts and confirm that thirteen pieces is indeed possible, I do not see how one would prove this is the maximum number of cuts. Furthermore, I have found the following general formula for $$n$$ cuts: $$f(n)=\frac{1}{6}(n^3+3n^2+8n)$$, but have not been able to find a proof for this either.

Better Question: How does one prove that thirteen is the maximum number of pieces with three cuts, and that $$f$$ provides the number of pieces with $$n$$ cuts?


text:
# Chapter 6 - Section 6.5 - Power - Example - Page 102: 6.7

a) $97 \ W$ b) $11,000 \ W$

#### Work Step by Step

We know that the average power is equal to the change in work over the change in time. Thus, we find: a) $P_{avg} = \frac{1300 \times 9.81 \times 55}{2 \times 3600} = 97 \ W$ b) $P_{avg} = \frac{1300 \times 9.81 \times 1500}{.5 \times 3600} = 11,000 \ W$

After you claim an answer you’ll have 24 hours to send in a draft. An editor will review the submission and either publish your submission or provide feedback.


text:
CodeML 4.9e "strange: f[132] = -0.889877 very small" messages
0
0
Entering edit mode
4.0 years ago
Hugo ▴ 340

Dear colleagues,

we hare using CodeML 4.9e for analyzing a FASTA file containing 50 sequences and the model 8 is finishing in an unusual way. It spends hours and hours printing those "strange: f[x] = n very small." messages.

strange: f[132] =    -0.889877 very small.
strange: f[133] =   -0.889893 very small.
log(fX) = -8624.941182  S = -8619.502108   -20.209692
Calculating f(w|X), posterior probabilities of site classes.    did 134 / 134 patterns  9:39:10
Time used: 9:39:11

I would be grateful if anyone could help us on understanding these messages.

Regards.

codeml paml phylogenetic • 847 views
1
Entering edit mode

This will require a bit of debugging but I believe that this is a warning and not necessarily an error. It runs to completion, right?

Based on the code for this, the warning message is related to the following step:

calculate log{fX}, where fX is the marginal probability of data, and posterior of parameters postpara[]. S2 is the scale factor

[source: https://petrov.stanford.edu/software/src/paml3.15/src/codeml.c]

I can only imagine that the size of your FASTA data is not typical.

0
Entering edit mode

Thank you for your response Kevin. Correctly, it runs to completion, but we are not sure about the meaning of these messages.


text:
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